EO GRAPHY 

THROUGH THE 

STEREOSCOPE 



STUDE JIT'S 

FIELD GUIDE 

NDERWOOD k UNDERWOOD 



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Class 
Book 



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Copyright N°. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT: 






GEOGRAPHY 

THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



STUDENTS STEREOSCOPIC 
FIELD GUIDE 



By 



PHILIP EMERSON 
« 

Principal of the Cobbet School, Lynn, Mass. 

Author of a "Geography of th? New England States" etc. 
AND 



WILLIAM CHARLES MOORE 

Instructor in Geography at the State. Normal School, 
Salem, Mass. 



UNDERWOOD & UNDERWOOD 
New York London 



UBR*«Y 9 f CONGRESS 
Two Cooles Received 

NOV 4 \90r 

Ceoynsht Entry 

CLASS A XXc, No. 

lit <3/V 
COPY B. 



,£54 



Copyright, 1907 

BY 

UNDERWOOD & UNDERWOOD 

New York and London 

(Entered at Stationers' Hall) 



All Stereographs Copyrighted 



MAP SYSTEM 
Patented in the United States, August 21, 1900 
Patented in Great Britain, March 22, 1900 
Patented in France, March 26, 1900. S.G.D.C. 
Switzerland, Patent 2 1 ,2 1 1 

SCHOOLROOM CHARTS 
Patent Applied For 



All Rights 



Reserved 



Printed in the United States 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

The Plan of Work ix 

The Plan of Cataloguing xix 

Explanations of the Map System xxi 

Details to be Observed xxii 

NORTH AMERICA 
New York City — 

Industries of New York i 

' ' Sky-scrapers " 3 

Street life in New York 5 

Library Reference Group 

Methods of travel in New York 7 

Niagara — 

General study of the falls 9 

Rock-walls of the gorga. 13 

Action of the falls 15 

Relation of Niagara to commerce 17 

Relation of Niagara to manufactures, 18 

Western Scenery — 

The Colorado plateau 21 

The Grand Canyon 23 

Yellowstone National Park 27 

Yellowstone Falls and Canyon 31 

Library Reference Groups 

The Colorado plateaus 34 

Hot springs and geysers in Yellowstone Park. ... 35 

The Yosemite Valley 36 

Big trees of California 39 

The Rocky Mountains 40 

The Canadian Rockies and the Selkirks 41 

Quebec — 

Library Reference Group 

The town as a stronghold and as a port 43 

Mexico — 

The plateau region 45 

Life in Mexico 49 

Library Reference Group 

Characteristic industries 52 



IV CONTENTS 

SOUTH AMERICA 
The Andean Region — page 

Relief and its effects 55 

Cities and people c . . 62 

Library Reference Group 
Productions, industries and methods of work. ... 72 
The cocoa industry 74 

EUROPE 
Ireland — 

Cottage homes of tenant farmers 80 

Peat 8s 

Library Reference Group 

Street markets and farm products 85 

Great Britain — 

London 88 

Library Reference Groups 

Government of the British Empire 93 

Scottish lowlands and highlands 94 

Edinburgh '95 

The Iberian Peninsula — 

Physiography and climate 98 

Backward customs 104 

Library Reference Groups 

Cities (Madrid, Barcelona, Seville, Lisbon) 108 

Cork 109 

France — 

Relief and its effects in 

The coastal border and related industries 117 

Paris 123 

Library Reference Groups 
Public buildings, monuments and works of art in 

Paris 128 

French cathedrals 130 

Holland and Belgium — 

Holland — dikes and polders 132 

Library Reference Groups 

Amsterdam and Rotterdam 136 

Villages of Holland 138 

Cities of Belgium 140 

The Scandinavian Peninsula — 

Surface features 141 

Fiords 145 

Library Reference Group 
Ports of Norway and Sweden 147 



CONTENTS V 

Germany — page 

The Rhine Valley . . " 150 

Parts of the Rhine Valley 151 

Life along the Rhine 154 

Library Reference Groups 

Berlin 156 

Transportation on German water-ways 158 

Kiel ship-canal (sea-level) 158 

Cologne cathedral 159 

German industries . 1 60 

Alpine Life and Scenery — 

Tyrol, Switzerland and Savoy 161 

Glaciers . 1 66 

Library Reference Group 
Swiss lake scenery 170 

Italy — 

Surface features 172 

Rome 178 

Venice 182 

Streets of Venice 184 

Library Reference Groups 

Pope Pius and the Vatican 189 

Florence 191 

St. Mark's, Venice 193 

Russia — 

Peasant life 194 

Surface features 198 

Library Reference Groups 

St. Petersburg 201 

Moscow 202 

Greece — 

Library Reference Groups 

The land and the people 204 

Athens 205 

AFRICA 
Egypt — 

The people, the monuments and the desert 207 

The Sphinx and the Pyramids 211 

Cairo 214 

Irrigation 216 

Library Reference Groups 

Bedouin life 220 

The Nile 222 

Central Africa — 

Life in the Congo Free State 224 

The Congo river 230 



VI CONTENTS 

ASIA 
India and Ceylon — page 

The people and their surroundings 237 

Himalaya mountains and northern plains 242 

Religions 245 

Elephants and their work. . . 248 

Library Reference Groups 

Capturing wild elephants , 250 

Cities of India 252 

China — 

The people and their homes 254 

Surface features. 256 

Bamboo 260 

Water-ways of China 262 

Library Reference Groups 

Chinese cities 265 

The Great Wall of China 266 

Japan — 

Surface features 268 

Japanese homes 272 

Library Reference Groups 

Japanese cities 276 

Transportation 278 

Handicrafts 279 

Child-life 280 

Korea — 

Korean ways 282 

Library Reference Group 
Cities in Korea 286 

The Philippine Islands — 

Library Reference Group 
Town and country life 289 

INDUSTRIES OF THE WORLD 
Textiles — 

Growing cotton 293 

Spinning and weaving 295 

Sheep raising 302 

Library Reference Groups 

Cotton from field to market 305 

Flax and linen 307 



CONTENTS Vil 

Foods — page 

Harvesting grain 311 

Transporting grain 314 

Tea 318 

Rice 320 

Library Reference Groups 

Rice in the United States 323 

Grazing and meat-packing 325 

Corn and pork 326 

Fishing 327 

Whaling 328 

Fruit-raising 329 

Sugar 330 

Coffee 331 

Bananas 332 

Tobacco — 333 

Mining and Manufacturing — 

Lake Superior Iron mines 334 

Transportation of ore 338 

Iron and steel 344 

Steel-works 345 

Library Reference Groups 

Coal and coke 348 

Copper-mining 349 

Gold-mining 350 

Plate-glass manufacturing 352 

Lumbering — 

Library Reference Groups 

Big trees of California 353 

From forest to lumber-yard 354 

Tar and turpentine 355 

Quarrying — 

Library Reference Group 
Granite in Massachusetts 356 

VOLCANOES 

Volcanic cones 357 

Volcanic phenomena and their consequences 3^9 



Vlll CONTENTS 



MAPS 

. PAGE 

: -i New York City. following 2 

2 Niagara .-....- 10 

3 Grand Canyon 22 

4 Yellowstone National Park 2 8 

5 Yosemite Valley 37 

6 Quebec 44 

7 London following 88 

8 Edinburgh 96 

9 Paris 125 

10 Amsterdam ".". 137 

1 1 Berlin following 156 

12 Rome 173 

1 3 Venice 185 

14 Vatican, The 190 

1 5 Florence -.....,,..192 

16 Cairo and Environs.. . . -. ; .- . : . . , . . /. . ;.'.:.. 208 



PLAN OF THE WORK 

The plan employed in the working out of the 
scheme assumes that the class numbers 48 pupils 
and provides for the division of the class into two 
sections. It may, however, be easily modified to fit 
classes of any size. While one section uses the 
stereographs the other will be engaged in recita- 
tion. The equipment for a class section of 24 pupils 
fcr one period is 12 stereoscopes, 12 stereographs 
and 24 of the Student's Guides. At the beginning 
of the period a stereoscope and stereograph are given 
to every other pupil. Thus 12 students will be do- 
ing field work with the stereoscopes and stereo- 
graphs at any one time. The other 12 will be busy 
wit^i their Guides and note books, either preparing 
for the study of one of the stereographed scenes or 
recording observations already made. At the end of 
every few minutes the stereographs with the stereo- 
scopes are passed to the pupils who in the meantime 
have been busy with their note books and Guides. 

As the contents of this book shows, the 
geography of the world is taken up under the heads 
of the leading countries, important cities or features 
of the great countries, and industries. The studies of 
these countries or sections or industries are divided 
under sub-heads, each of which is suitable for study 
during one class period, as the Industries of New 
York, its Sky Scrapers, and its Street Life; People 
and Homes of China, its Surface Features and 
Waterways. 



X GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

The study for each of these sub-heads is based 
upon a supply of 12 stereographed scenes (the 
equipment as pointed out above for a section of 24 
pupils during one class period). This unit or group 
of 12 stereographed scenes is made up in a certain 
number of different ways. 

One stereographed scene — 12 duplicates. 

Two different stereographed scenes — 6 dupli- 
cates each. 

Three different stereographed scenes — 4 dupli- 
cates each. 

Four different stereographed scenes — 3 dupli- 
cates each. 

Six different stereographed scenes — 2 duplicates 
each. 

There are also several irregular groups : 

Two different stereographed scenes, 8 dupli- 
cates of one and 4 duplicates of the other. 

Three different stereographed scenes, 8 duplicates 
of one and 2 each of the others, etc. 

The reason for making up this unit of 12 stereo- 
graphs in these different ways is the varying rich- 
ness of the scenes. Some stereographs con- 
tain such an abundance of geographical facts that 
not even an entire study period is sufficient to ex- 
haust them. 

As will soon appear, the intervals between ex- 
changes of stereographs during a class period will 
vary somewhat according to the number of the dif- 
ferent stereographs included in these groups of 12. 

Inasmuch as these different groups of 12 stereo- 
graphs form such a distinctive part of this system, 



PLAN OF THE WORK XI 

it has seemed to adopt the following terms, that 
can always be used in referring to them. We give 
also the number of each group used. (Here we 
introduce the word, Position, in the place of "Stereo- 
graph"). 

9 One-Position-Groups. 

6 Two-Position-Groups. 

12 Three- Position-Groups. 

1 8 Four-Position-Groups. 

14 Six-Position-Groups. 

1 Irregular Two-Position-Groups. 
6 Irregular Three-Position-Groups. 

2 Irregular Four-Position-Groups. 
1 Irregular Seven-Position-Group. 

It is desirable that every school, or at least a group 
of schools, should purchase several stereographs of 
carefully chosen scenes in full duplicate, that is, they 
should purchase as many duplicates of the stereo- 
graphs as there are members in a class. Such an 
outfit enables a teacher to direct every step in the 
study of such scenes, since every pupil can make 
observations from the same standpoint throughout 
the lesson. Thereby the students may be trained to 
use the stereoscope profitably without oversight. 

Under the heading "Positions taken by the 
Pupils," in the Teacher's Manual, a comprehensive 
title-list states the number of duplicates of stereo- 
graphs required in each of the Position-Groups for 
a class section of standard size. The stereographed 
scenes used in connection with the supplementary or 
Library Reference work are likewise included in the 



Xll GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

list of Positions in the Teacher's Manual. Only one 
copy each of these stereographs is required. 

To make very clear the way in which these differ- 
ent Position-Groups are used in the class, as well as 
the way the plan can be modified in classrooms of 
different sizes and arrangements, we have worked 
out the following diagrams or charts. First are 
given charts of a schoolroom containing 48 seats, 
arranged in 8 rows of 6 seats each. The first five 
charts show the way the five regular Position- 
Groups are used in this schoolroom. The 6th and 
7th charts illustrate the way the irregular Position- 
Groups are used. The 8th to the 12th charts show 
the way the five regular Position-Groups are used 
in a schoolroom containing 40 seats, arranged in 8 
rows of 5 seats each. The 13th and 14th charts 
illustrate the way the Position-Groups are to be 
accommodated to schoolrooms with irregular ar- 
rangements of seats. 

We believe that by an observation of these 
charts, teachers will be able easily to apply the sys- 
tem to all classrooms. In case any questions do arise 
in particular instances, the publishers will be glad to 
give special attention to them. 



PLAN OF THE WORK 



Xlll 



1. 48 Seatingg. One-Positiou-Group. 2. 48 Seatingg. Two-Position-Group. 



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a=one stereograph, of which there are 

12 duplicates. 
x= intervals for use of Guides or note 

books. 

Pupils work in groups of two. Stereo- 
graphs and stereoscopes passed along 
every 1\ or 5 minutes during a class 
period of 30 minutes. For class periods 
of greater or less lengths, intervals for 
study of the stereographs must vary in 
proportion. 



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a and b= two different stereographs of 
which there are 6 duplicates each. 

x= intervals for use of Guides or note 
books. 

Pupils work in groups of two. Stereo- 
graphs and stereoscopes are passed 
along every 2£ or 5 minutes during a 
class period of 30 minutes; but in the 
middle of the period neighboring pairs 
of pupils exchange stereographs. 



3. 48 Seatings. Three-Position-Group. 4. 48 Seatingg. Four-Position-Group. 



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PATENT APPLIED FOR 1 2 1 





a, b and c= three different stereographs, 
of which there are 4 duplicates each. 

x= intervals for use of Guides or note 
books. 

Pupils work in groups of six. Stereo- 
graphs and stereoscopes are passed 
along every 2£ or 5 minutes during a 
class period of 30 minutes. 



a, b, c and d=four different stereo- 
graphs, of which there are 3 duplicates 
each. 

x= intervals for use of Guides or note- 
books. 

Pupils work in groups of eight. Stereo- 
graphs and stereoscopes are passed 
along every 3$ minutes during a class 
period of 30 minutes. 



XIV GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



5. 48Seatings. Six-Position-Group. 



6. 4SSeatings. 
Irregular Three-Position-Group. 



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a, b, c, d, e and f=six different stereo- 
graphs, of which there are 2 duplicates 
each. 

x= intervals for use of Guides or note- 
books. 

Pupils work in groups of twelve. Stereo- 
graphs and stereoscopes are passed 
along every 2\ minutes during a class 
period of 30 minutes. 



a, b and c= three different stereographs, 
of which there are 6 duplicates of a 
and 3 duplicates each of b and c^ The 
method of use is the same as shown in 
No. 4, only a is seen twice as often ar 
band c. 



7. 48Seatlngs. 
Irregular Four-Position-Group. 


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a, b, c and d=four different stereo, 
graphs, of which there are 4 duplicates 
of each. The method of use i? the same 
as shown in No. 3. only b and c are 
passed together as one stereograph. 



PLAN OF THE WORK 



XV 



40 Seatings. One-Position«Group. 



9. 40 Seatings. Two-Position-Group. 



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The equipment of stereographs and the 
method of use are the same as shown in 
No. 1, except that in the second section 
four duplicates of a are not used. 



The equipment of stereographs and the 
method of use are the same as shown in 
No. 2, except that in the second section 
two duplicate sets of the stereographs 
are not used. 



40 Seatings. Three-Position-Group. 11. 40 Seatings. Four-Position-Group. 



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The equipment of stereographs and the 
method of use are the same as shown in 
No. 3, except that in the second section 
one of the sets of stereographs is not 
■used, and anothpr set is used by a group 
of only four pupils. 



The equipment and method of use are the 
same as shown in No. 4. except that in 
one of the groups in the first section a 
monitor will be needed to pass the 
stereographs, as shown by the broken 
line, and in the second section one set of 
stereographs will not be used. 



XVI 



GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



12. 40Seatings. Six-Position-Gronp. 



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44Seatings - Irregular Arrangement. 
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PATENT APPLIED FOR 



The equipment and method of use are the 
same as shown in No. 5, except in the 
second section one set of the stereo- 
graphs is not used, and the group of 
four pupils use first a and b, then c and 
d, and e and f . 



This chart shows how one of the Position- 
Groups may be used in a schoolroom of 
44 seatings, where two seats are on 
either side of the teacher's desk. The 
equipment and method of use are the 
same as shown in No. 3, except that the 
group of two pupils in the second section 
study a first, then b and c. 



14. 



39 Seatines - Irregular Arrangement. 
Tbree-Position-Group. 



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PATENT APPLIED FOR 






Teacher's 1 
Desk | 





This chart shows how one of the Position- 
Groups is used in a classroom wh^re one 
seat is missing. The equipment and 
method of use are th? same as shown in 
No. 3 and No. 10, except that one group 
of five pupils in the first section use one 
sot of the stereographs. 



PLAN OF THE WORK XVU 

When classes are less than 48 in number, some 
reduction can be made in the equipment ; but unless 
the class numbers considerably less than 48, the re- 
duction possible in the equipment is hardly worth 
considering. 

If a class does not exceed 44, there will be one 
group of two pupils less in each section; hence 11 
duplicates of the One-Position-Groups (see page 
xi) will be sufficient. 

If a class does not exceed 40, there will be two 
groups of two pupils and one group of four pupils 
less in each section; hence 10 duplicates of the One- 
Position-Groups and 5 duplicates of the Two-Posi- 
tion-Groups will be sufficient. 

If a class does not exceed 36, there will be three 
groups of two pupils, one group of four pupils, and 
one group of six pupils less in each section; hence 
9 duplicates of the One-Position-Groups, 5 dupli- 
cates of the Two-Position-Groups, and 3 duplicates 
of the Three-Position-Groups will be sufficient 

When a class does not exceed 36, we advise an 
increase of practically one-half in the regular equip- 
ment, which will permit the whole class to form one 
section. This would mean 18 duplicates of the 
stereographs in the One-Position-Groups, 9 dupli- 
cates each of the stereographs in the Two-Position- 
Groups, 6 duplicates each of the stereographs in the 
Three-Position-Groups, 5 duplicates each of the 
stereographs in the Four-Position-Groups, 3 dupli- 
cates each of the stereographs in the Six-Position- 
Groups. 

It will be apparent that when classes consist of 
only 24 pupils, they will form single sections suf- 
ficiently supplied by the regular equipment. 



XV111 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

It is well for large schools to buy a full equip- 
ment of 48 stereoscopes. At other times than when 
the whole class is engaged in the study of one stereo- 
graphed scene, this full equipment of stereoscopes 
will supply four classes during the same period. 



THE PLAN OF CATALOGUING 

We have adopted a simple system to aid schools 
in cataloguing the stereographs upon which this 
work is based. The stereographs provided for class 
study are numbered in the Guide, in the order in 
which they appear under the heads of the different 
countries or important sections. 

Then on the back of each of the stereograph 
mounts, in the upper right-hand corner, is given the 
name of the country or section to which the stereo- 
graph belongs, together with its serial number, and 
"School Position" in parenthesis, as, for example, 
"(i) New York City (School Position)." Any 
numbers that may appear in connection with the title 
on the front of the stereograph are to be ignored in 
using or cataloguing the school stereographs. 

Stereographs used in the Library Reference 
Groups under the heads of the different countries or 
sections are numbered in the Guide separately from 
the stereographs for regular class use, and have the 
letter R added to their serial numbers. On the backs 
of the stereographs the word "Reference" is added, 
as "(i) New York City — Reference (School Posi- 
tion)." 

All the stereographs used under the heading, "The 
Industries of the World" have the letter I added to 
the numbers in the Guide. The Industries are 
studied under the headings, Textiles, Foods, Mining 
and Manufacturing, Lumbering, and Quarrying. 
Stereographs used in each of these divisions are 
numbered separately. The stereographs used in the 



XX GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

study of Textiles have the letter T added in this 
book to the letter I and the serial numbers; those 
used in the study of Foods, have the letter F added 
to the letter I and their serial numbers; those used 
under Mining and Manufacturing have the letter 
M added to the letter I and their serial numbers. 
Stereographs relating to Lumbering (including the 
extraction of Tar and Turpentine) add the letter L 
to the I and the serial numbers. The stereographs 
used in the Library Reference Groups under these 
various heads have the letter R added to the other 
letters and their serial numbers. 

The titles appearing on the backs of these stereo- 
graphs are, for instance, "(i) Industries — Textiles 
(School Position)," "(i) Industries — Foods 
(School Position)," "(i) Industries— Textiles — 
Reference (School Position)," etc. 

The classification of Whaling along with Fisheries 
in general brings it somewhat incongruously under 
the head of Food Industries, but, for the sake of 
avoiding elaboration, this will doubtless be par- 
doned. 

The stereographs used in the study of Volcanoes 
have the letter V added to the serial numbers in this 
book, and the word Volcanoes given in full on the 
backs of the stereographs. 



EXPLANATIONS OF THE MAP 
SYSTEM 

1. The heavier black straight lines on the maps mark out 
the territory shown in the respective stereographs. 

2. The numbers or numbers and letters in circles refer 
to stereographs or Positions correspondingly numbered. 

3. The apex (<^_ ), or point from which two lines branch 
out, indicates the place from which the view was taken, 
viz., the place from which we look out, in the stereograph, 
over the territory between the two lines. 

4. The branching lines( < ^""""' ) indicate the limits of the 
stereographed scene, viz., the limits of our vision on the 
right and left when looking at the stereograph. 

5. The stereograph number without a circle is frequently 
placed at the end of each branching line (example 0<d^_ ) 
to help locate quickly the space shown in a stereograph. 

6. Sometimes the encircled number is placed where it 
can be seen better, and a zigzag line runs to the apex to 
which it refers. 

7. When the field of view in the stereoscopic scene is 
limited, its location is designated only by the number of the 
stereograph in a circle without the branching lines, or \»u 
an arrow running from such an encircled number. 

8. When some object obstructs the vision on the right or 
left in a stereoscopic scene, the bounding lines are often 
continued beyond the obstruction as broken lines. 



DETAILS TO BE OBSERVED 

i. Experiment with the sliding rack, which holds 
the stereographed scene, until you find the distance 
which best suits the focus of your own eyes. This 
distance varies greatly with different people. 

2. Have a strong, steady light on the stereo- 
graph. Take care that the face of it is not in 
shadow. It is a good plan to sit with the back to- 
ward the window or lamp, letting the light fall over 
one shoulder directly on the face of the stereograph. 

3. Hold the stereoscope with the hood close 
against the forehead and temples, shutting off en- 
tirely all immediate surroundings. The less you are 
conscious of things close about you, the more strong 
will be your feeling of actual presence in the scenes 
you are studying. 

4. Think definitely, while you have your face in 
the hood, just where your position is, as learned 
from the maps or explanatory text. Recall (when 
known) your surroundings to mind, i. e., think what 
is behind you ; what lies off at the right ; at the left. 
You will find yourself richly repaid for the effort 
by your fuller sense of presence in the actual place. 

5. Try to take time outside of school hours to 
study the stereographed scenes. Notice all the little 
details, or rather, notice as many as you can each 
time; you will be surprised to find, the next time 
you look at the same place, how manv things you 
had failed to notice at first. By taking: time to 
notice some of these details, and by thinking defi- 
nitely of your surroundings, you are helped to gain 
experiences of being in the actual places. 



NORTH AMERICA 

NEW YORK CITY 

Introduction. What rank does New York 
City hold in the Western Continent ? In the world ? 
What natural advantages for the development of a 
great city does its location possess? See a map 
showing the position of New York City in relation 
to the surrounding country in your text books and 
also the map of a part of the city given herewith. 

Under the direction of your teacher discuss the 
commercial relations of New York City to the cities 
of the interior and to those of foreign countries. To 
what extent are the raw materials of commerce made 
into finished articles? Describe the importance of 
New York City as an industrial center. 

See page xxi for information in regard to the pat- 
ented maps given in this book. 

Industries of New York 

Find Position i upon our map of New York and 
note the direction in which we are to look. 

Position x. Looking north up West Street from near 
the Battery, New York City 

(a) Upon which side of the city are we? What 
river do we see? In which direction does it flow? 
How wide is the river (scale it upon the map) ? In 
what state are those highlands in the distance? 



2 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

What city in the same state is just across the river 
from where we stand ? 

Name some of the things which make this scene 
interesting. 

(b) What do they call these structures along the 
water front ? What does that sign over one of them 
mean? (Locate the cities named.) Find the vessel 
with the letter "M" on its smokestack. It runs be- 
tween New York and Boston. Describe the general 
appearance of the docks and tell something about 
the kind and number of boats tied up at the wharves. 

(c) How are most of the boats upon the river 
propelled? How can you tell? What do you see 
over the end of the wharf at the extreme left of our 
field of vision? Tell what it is carrying. How 
many of them can you count? (There are two or 
three rows of them.) From what city are they com- 
ing? To what dock do they appear to be going? 
With what kind of merchandise do you think they 
are loaded? Find other boats on the river like this 
one and tell where they are. 

(d) What do you see lined up at the side of the 
street immediately below? What do you see in the 
more distant portions of this thoroughfare? What 
do these things tell you about the character of this 
portion of the city? What kind of work is carried 
on in the warehouses on the water side of the street ? 
What are the buildings on the opposite side used 
for? Does the sign "B. T. Babbitt" help you to de- 
cide? Name two classes of occupations illustrated 
here which tend to make New York a big place. 

Summary. Be ready to describe the appear- 
ance and industries of the west side water front 



o 



m 



I * I „, 3 



4H 

""""« 




iiHiiiiiiliiiiiiiBllililH 




NEW YORK CITY 6 

of New York City. Let your description include all 
that your attention has been directed to in this man- 
ual and anything else that interested you. 

Sky Scrapers in New York 

Find on the map our second Position and note 
the direction in which we are to be looking. 

Position 2. From Brooklyn Bridge, west, the New 
World's Metropolis 

(a) Towards what portion of Greater New York 
are we looking (See map, Position 2) ? What part 
is behind us and to the left? What river does this 
bridge cross? How does it compare in width with 
North or Hudson River (See map) ? Describe our 
position in relation to the surface of the water be- 
low. Of what advantage is this to the shipping? 

(b) Describe the scene upon the water below. 
What do you see along the edge of the river ? De- 
scribe the difference between the buildings near the 
water front and those further back. For what are 
the nearer buildings used ? 

(c) Find the steeple of Trinity Church directly 
in front of us among those tall buildings. How do 
the buildings compare with it in height ? These "sky- 
scrapers" are principally office buildings. Which 
of the occupations that make New York great are 
carried on here? What impressions do you get 
from these buildings concerning the amount of busi- 
ness done in this city ? What does the crowded con- 
dition of lower New York tell us about the amount 
of land available in that section for building pur- 
poses ? 



4 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Find our third Position upon the map. 

Position 3. From St. Paul Building, (358 feet high) 
north, up Broadway 

(a) In what part of the city are we? In which 
direction are we looking ? How far does New York 
extend in that direction? As you look over the 
roofs of the buildings recall from the map what 
place lies behind us and on the right and left. 

(b) How does the building on which we are 
standing compare in height with those immediately 
around it? With the buildings a few blocks away? 
Describe the appearance of the people and vehicles 
in the street below. What is the name of that street ? 
How do the tall buildings make it appear in width ? 
What feeling do you experience in looking down ? 

(c) What are these two low buildings directly 
beneath and a little to the right? Why are lofty 
buildings more profitable to owners than low ones? 
W r hy do the two buildings before mentioned not 
need to be ' 'sky-scrapers" ? Find City Hall Park 
just over the cupola of the nearest building. Is it 
an advantage or not for the city to have some open 
spaces among these tall buildings? If City Hall 
Park had not been owned by the city what would it 
have been used for long ago ? 

Summary. Write a letter to a schoolmate at 
home describing New York's tall buildings as seen 
from Brooklyn Bridge and from the top of St. Paul 
Building. Tell in what part of the city they are, 
how high they are, for what they are used, 
why they are necessary and why profitable invest- 
ments, why they are built so close together, and de- 



NEW YORK CITY 

scribe the general impression one gets from them 
of the crowded condition of lower New York. 

Street Life in New York 

Find our Position 4 on the map of New York. 

Position 4. Broad Street, north, to the Stock Ex- 
change, V, S. Sub-Treasury and Jb all Street 

(a) In what part of the city are we? Is it a busi- 
ness or residential district? What class of people 
shall we expect to meet here ? 

Name some of the most striking things in the 
scene before us. That low building in the distance 
with the stone pillars is the United States Sub- 
Treasury: for what is it used? Wall street crosses 
Broad at that point : for what is Wall street famous ? 
The lowest among the nearer buildings on our left 
is the New York Stock Exchange. (What business 
is carried on there?) 

(b) Tell about the people we see on Broad street. 
Why are they not on the sidewalk? This is known 
as the "Curb" market, where stocks and bonds are 
sold in the street. 

Describe the buildings: how high are they (count 
the stories in the tall building beyond the Sub- 
Treasury) of what are they constructed, and for 
what are they used? What impression do we get 
from these tall buildings in regard to the condition 
of this part of the city ? 

Find on the map our fifth Position on Elizabeth 
street. 



b GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 5. Elizabeth Street, looking north from 
Hester Street 

(a) In what section of the city are we now? 
What is the character of this neighborhood? What 
kind of people do we see here? Describe the ap- 
pearance of the houses. Why are those iron bal- 
conies and ladders necessary? Do you think many 
or few people live within? Give reasons. 

(b) What do you see lined up against the curb- 
stone on the farther side of the street? To whom 
do they belong? What are they here for? What 
sort of articles do they contain? Do you see any- 
body patronizing them ? In which direction are we 
looking? Then what time of day must it be (notice 
the shadows) ? What season of the year? Why? 

Find upon the map through what part of New 
York Fifth Avenue runs and of what famous park 
its northern portion forms the eastern boundary. 
Note the sixth Position we are to take and the 
direction in which we are to look. 

Position 6. Palatial homes and hotels of Upper 
Fifth Avenue 

(a) What kind of people do we meet on Fifth 
Avenue? Can you tell what day of the week and 
what time of day it is ? How do you know ? How 
do you explain the presence of so many people upon 
the street at this time? Describe the condition of 
the roadway and the kind of vehicles seen upon it. 

(b) WTiat is the character of the buildings on 
each side of the street ? Of what material are they 
built? For what is that tall building on the right 
used? What is this place on the left from which 



NEW YORK CITY 7 

so many people are coming? Most of the buildings 
are the palatial homes of the rich. 

What place is that in the distance on the left 
where the bare branches of the trees are seen ? 

Summary. Describe the different types of 
street life, in New York which we have seen as fol- 
lows : Tell what streets were visited, in what part 
of the city each is and the characteristics of each 
locality. Make comparisons between the different 
kinds of people, buildings and condition of the 
streets. 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUP 

Methods of Travel in New York City 

Position xR. Herald Square, junction of Broadway 
and Sixth Avenue, north, showing Herald Build- 
ing and elevated railway- 
Position sR. New York's great shopping district and 
elevated railway — Sixth Avenue from Eight- 
eenth Street 

Position 3R. The great wonder of the age: Brooklyn 
Bridge from the World building 

Position 4R. New Jersey ferry boat, bringing morn- 
ing business crowds into New York City 

Where do most of the people who work in the 
crowded business section of New York live ? What 
effect upon the distance which these people have to 
travel to and from their homes does the shape of 
Manhattan Island have? (See map.) 

Describe the different methods of reaching New 
York and of travel within the city according to the 
following outline : 

( 1 ) The Elevated Railway ; its relation to streets 



8 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

and buildings, the kind of cars and the character of 
the structure. 

(2) The Surface Cars, Carnages and Hansom 
Cabs. 

(3) Brooklyn Bridge; joins what places, across 
what river, used for what kinds of travel, of what 
importance to New York; description of the struc- 
ture. 

(4) The Ferry Boats; number of people they 
carry, their destination, style of boats, shape of ends, 
number of pilot houses, why built that way, number 
of passenger decks, accommodations for horses and 
wagons. 



NIAGARA FALLS 

Introduction. Find Niagara Falls on a 
map. Make a sketch of the river basin and system 
to which the Niagara river belongs. Describe the 
basin — its position, size, surface, climate, produc- 
tions, and cities, in so far as you already know it. 
What have you already learned about the river 
system? Stand and point toward Niagara Falls. 
Describe the route thither, briefly. What have you 
heard about Niagara Falls from those who have vis- 
ited them? What have you read about the great 
cataract ? 

You are now to go to Niagara yourself and take 
a standpoint from which you can get a birdseye 
view. You will look southwest from the top of the 
observation tower, as shown by the dark lines ex- 
tending from the figure i, on your special map in 
this guide. In what country is your standpoint to 
be ? What features of the Falls are to be within the 
scope of your view? What country will be across 
the river? 

Position r, Niagara and its great clond of rising 
spray from the distant tower 

Through a stout iron railing you look down upon 
the islets past which the river flows to the near 
American Falls. Their roar fills the air like the 
noise of surf, but they are unseen. Why? What 
island half conceals the main river channel and the 
Canadian Falls? 




, tSOl, by Ondervooi <f Cnafaood 

Fount ft U.S.A., AurnittU,tSOO. 

PatenUa France. Uarch-V, WOO. 8. C. /> 0. 



Patented Greet Britain, March K, . 
S-vUcrland. C^3 Patent Pr. M.21I 



NIAGARA FALLS 11 

In what direction are you looking ? Point toward 
Lake Erie. Lake Ontario. Map the scene. 

Is the plain beyond the river flat or undulating? 
Notice the horizon line. How far then does the 
plain extend? 

What vegetation clothes it? 

Describe the slope of the descent to the upper river; then 
the descent from Victoria Park, lying beyond the spray, to 
the lower river. Notice two parts to each slope. 

Estimate the breadth of the river and the depth 
of the gorge by comparisons with the people, trees, 
houses, and steamer. Name home features of simi- 
lar breadth and height. 

Contrast the upper river and valley with the lower 
as to breadth, depth, water movement, etc. For 
these purposes notice the character of the foam. 

Recognize the sublimity of the scene and name 
the features of beauty and grandeur that you see. 

What evidence that many enjoy the falls? 

Literature. Prepare to recite or read some 
chosen portion of prose or poetry that depicts the 
grandeur of Niagara. The Niagara Book gives 
the awesome description of Father Hennepin, the 
early explorer. The Poetry of Niagara contains 
many fine selections. 

The Falls 

You are now to stand at six points whence the 
falls can be viewed best. Recall the tower view, 
study the patent key map, and notice closely the di- 
rection in which you are to look and what you are 
to see and study from each standpoint, that your 



12 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

period for observation may be as unbroken as pos- 
sible. When looking from any standpoint, notice 
the places where you have stood or are to stand for 
other outlooks, as shown by the map, p. 10. During 
the intervals between periods of observation through 
the stereoscope, take such notes and make such 
drawings as the time will allow. Afterwards recall 
the scenes, review your notes, and prepare to express 
your thoughts on every topic and question. 

Position 2. "Niagara, thou eternal drop from. God's 
right hand " 

Find Luna Falls. 

Position 5. Splendor of God's handiwork — American 
Palls from Goat island 

Luna Falls and Luna Island are just before you. The white 
line under the bridge is water rushing from the tunnel of the 
power plant 

Position 4. American Falls from the Canadian side 

Position 5. Rock of Ages and Luna Falls, one of the 
beauty spots of the great cataract 

Position 6. Majestically grand— The Falls from the 
" Maid of the Mist ' ' 

Position 7. Tireless Niagara— Horseshoe Falls from 
above 

FIRST exercise: the falls 

By comparison with other objects estimate the 
height of the falls and the width of the gorge. What 
kind of line would represent the brink of the falls 
and gorge as seen from above? How steep are the 
sides of the gorge ? 

Does the water fall in solid sheets or broken 
masses? Why so? Why the spray? Contrast the 
falling water with that above the falls : why the 



NIAGARA FALLS 13 

color contrast? Describe and explain the surface 
features of the water below the falls. Describe the 
adventures of a billow of the upper river. Is it 
merely one leap to the pool below ? 

SECOND EXERCISE : COMPARISON OF THREE FALLS 

Compare the three falls as to position, form, 
width, amount of water, the foot of the falls, the 
spray, etc. What relation has the position of each 
fall to its volume of water (See map also) ; and 
this to the conditions at its base and the amount of 
spray? Which fall do you enjoy most? Why? 
Which is most beautiful? Which grandest? 

Supplementary Work. Return to the observa- 
tion tower (Position i) under your teacher's direc- 
tion, and view the falls thence again. What do you 
see now that escaped your eye before? Can you an- 
swer any of the questions better now ? 

After discussion of the observations the class 
have made, write an imaginative account of the ad- 
ventures of a billow or a piece of driftwood in com- 
ing over the falls. Write a description of the three 
falls in which you compare them with one another. 

Rock Walls of Niagara Gorge 

Home Field Study. Find near your school 
some little cliff or bank composed of unlike soils or 
rocks, and preferably one that is crumbling or 
weathering down rapidly. Study it with your 
teacher, and describe the changes in its slope from 
verge to base. Try to discover and state the reasons 
why the slope is not uniform. 



14 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Find Position 8 on the map. Note what are to be 
your surroundings and toward what you are to 
look. 

Position 8. Winter's stilled cataracts suspended from 
Table Rock — and the mighty Horseshoe Falls — 
Canadian side 

You stand beneath Position 7. Describe the cliff. 
Do you feel there is danger beneath it ? What qual- 
ity must the rock possess? 

We shall now leave the falls and take our stand 
on the bridge far down the long gorge. Notice on 
the map your Position, surroundings and outlook. 

Position 9, The Whirlpool Rapids from the Steel 
Arch Bridge 

Describe the rapids. Contrast the gorge here with the 
part near the falls as to width, depth of water, and slope of 
river bed. 

Study the gorge walls and their varying slope. 
Represent the main changes in slope by a line, i. e., 
a diagram. Where the cliffs are free from vegeta- 
tion and rock waste notice the rock structure, i. e., 
the way its materials are arranged. 

Study of rock specimens from the walls of Niagara 
Gorge 

Describe the Niagara limestone, which underlies 
the soil of the Niagara plain. Compare its structure 
and its power to resist weathering and erosion with 
those of the shales that lie beneath it. With the 
Trenton limestone that outcrops amid the shales. 
Infer the cause for the alternating vertical ledges 
and waste slopes of the gorge walls. 



NIAGARA FALLS 15 

Find Position 10 on the map and note the direc- 
tion in which you are to look and your field of vis- 
ion. 

Position 10. The deep Gorge and Rapids overlook- 
ing the Whirlpool, from Canadian side 

Describe the cliffs, as directed under Position 9. 

The Action of the Falls 

Home Field Study. Find a miniature Ni- 
agara Falls near your school, where a brook or rill 
is making a little gorge. The tough sod of a grassy 
field, or a thin layer of sun-baked clay over a bed of 
sand in the gutter, may replace the limestone strata 
at Niagara. Study the action of the falling water 
with your teacher, and discover how the little fall 
recedes. 

Return to Position 7. Tireless Niagara — Horseshoe 
Palls from above 

Describe the ledges at the brink of the falls near 
you. What change seems almost ready to- occur? 
What do you judge is true of the cliff verge in mid- 
stream ? 

Return to Position 5. Rock of Ages and I^una Falls — 
One of the beauty spots of the great cataract 

How large are the boulders? Why are they not 
washed away? Are they much waterworn? Note 
their structure. Are they shale or limestone? 
Whence do you infer they came? 

Return to Position 4. American Falls from the Ca- 
nadian side 

Notice the blocks beneath the falls. Can you see 



16 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

whence some blocks came recently? What would a 
very much greater volume of water do to the 
blocks ? 

Return to Position 6, Majestically grand— The Falls 
from the "Maid of the Mist, " 

Compare the conditions beneath the falls at your 
left and those within the curve of the "horseshoe." 
Explain the difference. Notice the water jet spout- 
ing above the mists and judge how forcibly the 
water falls. 

Return to Position 8. Winter's stilled cataracts, sus- 
pended from Table Rock, and the mighty Horse- 
shoe Falls 

Why no slopes of broken shale here, like those 
farther down the gorge? Why do the cliffs over- 
hang ? 

Find Position 1 1. See the map. 

Position it. The magnificent "Horseshoe" from 
Dufferin hotel tower 

Look into the mists. What do you think is true 
as to the rocks, and the depth and action of the 
water beneath the center of the falls ? 

Compare the falls with the map of their recession. 
Tell what you think is the cause of their recession. 
Tell the history of the gorge. 

Written Work. Write an account of the for- 
mation of Niagara Gorge by the Falls. Illustrative 
diagrams and sketches will add to its value. Cut 
halftone illustrations from railroad booklets and 
periodicals, and write your own comments and ex- 
planations beneath each. 




NIAGARA FALLS 17 



Relations of Niagara to Commerce 

Introduction. What hardships must Niagara 
have caused the early French explorers? Read 
about Father Hennepin and La Salle at Niagara in 
Parkman's histories. 

Were there no falls or rapids in the St. Lawrence 
system how would grain be carried to Europe ? Can 
a vessel steam from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario ? If 
so, how? What is the course of the Erie Canal? 
Why? What would be its western terminus and its 
name were the Niagara river navigable from lake to 
lake? 

You are now to take your stand a dozen miles 
west of Niagara and a few miles from the northern 
end of the Welland Canal. Note your position and 
surroundings upon a map in your textbook. 

Position 12. Boat in one of the twenty-£ve locks of 
the Welland canal, Ontario 

Notice the shadows : is the vessel moving south- 
ward or northward? Notice the two water levels, 
and the distant embankment of another canal level : 
toward what lake is the vessel moving ? 

Is it heavily or lightly laden? Why should this be so? 
What is the schooner's home port? 

Notice the cumulus clouds, and describe their form. Does 
it show movement toward your left or right? Since this is a 
fair day in the belt of prevailing westerly winds, does the 
cloud movement agree with your previous conclusion as to 
directions ? 

The distant houses are on the bluff, or escarp- 
ment, of the high plain of the Niagara river, up to 
which locks raise the vessels. Study the lock. De- 



18 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

scribe its form, its parts, the materials used in its 
construction. Study the parts of the gates and infer 
their action. 

Discuss in class the way in which the vessel en- 
tered the lock. How did it reach the higher level? 
How will it leave the lock? How would a vessel 
get from the lock to the lower canal level ? Why is 
a tugboat necessary? Show by successive sectional 
diagrams at the blackboard how a canal lock works. 

We now go to Chicago, from which an immense 
traffic is carried on with the east through the lakes, 
and look from one vessel at another, moored beside 
the wharf. 

Position 13. loading a great whaleback ship at 
the famous grain elevators 

This lake front scene is typical of Chicago and 
western and eastern lake ports. Describe the build- 
ings. (Why are they called elevators? Why so 
large?) What must be the use of the pairs of shafts 
that extend into the vessel's hold? (Is there auto- 
matic conveying machinery in any home factory?) 
What must be the use of the great tubes now swung 
back over the wharf? 

Describe the ship; its size, form, plan. Where is 
grain carried ? To what port does the vessel belong ? 

Notice the steering wheel, and the large pipes for ventila- 
tion. In what parts of the vessel do the men live and work? 
Why there? How do you think this vessel is propelled? 

Relation of Niagara to Manufacturing. 

Introduction. What is meant by water- 
power? What is a water-wheel? Is there one in 



NIAGARA FALLS 19 

use near your home? How a^ ^rhj ne w i iee ls con- 
structed? How is water led to themr *^ 
good way to place water-wheels and mills at Ni- 
agara. Illustrate by diagrams. From articles in 
the St. Nicholas and other magazines (see Poole's 
Index at the public library) learn what methods are 
in use at Niagara, and report in class. 

Find Position 14 on our map of Niagara. 

Position 14. Autumn beauties along Niagara's pre- 
cipitous banks, looking up towards the Falls 

What makes this scene beautiful? What detracts 
from its natural charms? Contrast the American 
and Canadian sides of the gorge. In what respects 
are they typical of the two countries ? Is there pres- 
ent danger that the economic use of the power of 
Niagara may partly destroy its scenic values? 
Ought the State to give the water rights to corpor- 
ations and risk losing the grandeur of the Falls ? 

Describe the waters falling into the gorge at the 
left. How must the waters have been led there? 
For what purpose ? For what must the large build- 
ings above be used ? 

Find the line of foam that marks the water rushing from 
the tunnel of the distant power plant. 

Position 15. Dynamos, 5000 horse-power, 25 revo- 
lutions per second, 2,200 volt current, Niagara 
Palls Power Company 

(What is a horse-power? A volt?) Count the 
dynamos and calculate the total horse-power. ( Com- 
pare this with the power used by the factories of 
your city.) Where do you think the waterwheels 
are that turn the shafts ending in the dynamos? 



20 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Where is the appar^- ^ r controlling the transmis- 
sion - r -rccmcity? Where and for what is the 
power that is developed here used? 

The building is one leading type of modern American fac- 
tory construction. Describe it. Why is it preferable to a 
wooden building? To a building of brick and wood? 

The bridge and the observation tower (seen from Position 
14) are typical American structures. Of what materials are 
they built? Describe their plan and method of construction. 

Supplementary Work. What relation has Ni- 
agara Falls to the location and growth of Buffalo? 
Were the Niagara river navigable to Lake 
Ontario, where would the greatest eastern lake port 
have been located? What are the reasons for ex- 
pecting the Niagara frontier to become populous in 
the future? 

Make a class collection of half-tone pictures and 
photographs to supplement your studies of Niagara. 
Views of the Falls and the Gorge. Views of the 
power plant and the near factories. Views of the 
related canals, lake wharves and elevators, and of 
lake vessels and canal boats. Views of other im- 
portant waterfalls, with the factories and cities near 
them, 



WESTERN SCENERY 

The Colorado Plateau and Canyon 

Introduction. Where are the sources of the 
Colorado river? Describe its course. Where is 
its mouth ? Describe the distribution of rainfall over 
its basin. Show these facts on a sketch map. What 
railways cross the Colorado Plateau? Where do 
they cross the Colorado river ? Why not elsewhere ? 
What have you read about the Colorado Canyon ? 

The Colorado Plateau 

You are now to stand beside a Mexican shepherd, 
in Arizona, and look north toward the San Fran- 
cisco mountains, beyond which is the Grand Canyon 
of the Colorado. 

Position x. Sheep raising, an extensive industry in 
northern Arizona 

Here we are in the midst of the great Southwest. 
Behind us southern Arizona stretches away, with 
its occasional mines and irrigated valleys. As we 
are looking north, the Mississippi river is to our 
right, over 1,200 miles distant, while the Pacific 
coast at Los Angeles is more than 400 miles dis- 
tant, to our left. 

Would you like to live here? Why? Describe 
the surface of the country in the foreground. Why 
call it a plateau rather than a plain? What advan- 
tages or disadvantages for railway construction? 
Describe the amount and character of the vegetation. 



22 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



What do you infer as to the rainfall? What effects 
on industries -^ population? 

describe the horizon line carefully. What two 
land forms do you infer there are in the distance? 




Are they separate peaks or a continuous range? 

They are extinct volcanoes. Which one best preserves the 
form of a volcano? 

Is the rise to higher levels abrupt or gradual? 



THE COLORADO CANYON 23 

Would you expect to find more rainfall and vegetation on 
the distant highlands, or less? Why? 

Beyond those San Francisco mountains is the 

Grand Canyon of the Colorado. 

The Colorado Canyon 

Having passed the San Francisco mountains and 
approached the Canyon, you are to stand upon its 
brink and look through the clear air to the opposite 
cliffs, miles distant, yet seemingly near. Find the 
Position, numbered 2, on your special map of the 
Canyon in this Guide. 

Position 2. Gazing into a yawning chasm, 5,000 
feet deep, Moran's Point, Grand Canyon 

(a) Can you realize the depth of the canyon — 
that the river is a mile beneath you, sunk in the 
central gorge? How would the highest hill or 
building near your home look if set upon the rock 
level, nearly 4,000 feet below you? What impress- 
ion would the Yellowstone Canyon, 1,200 ft. deep, 
make if it entered this canyon opposite you? Notice 
the clouds above and the cloud shadows below as 
an aid to appreciating the grand proportions of the 
canyon. 

Recall your view across the country behind you 
when visiting the herd of sheep. Describe the sky 
line opposite, and infer the land surface there. Sight 
across the cliff top on your right, and compare levels 
on the two sides of the canyon. Were there no 
canyon what would be the surface form of the land ? 

(b) Notice the varying colors and forms of the 
opposite valley wall : how are the different kinds of 
rocks arranged? What is the form of the slope, in 



24 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

consequence ? Is the massive rock face that forms a 
white band high on the opposite cliffs composed of 
weak or resistant rock? Why do you think so? 
What quality of rock forms the surface of the level 
plateau adjoining the central gorge below? What 
reasons for your view ? Are weak or resistant rocks 
more prominent? Why? 

You are now to look northward again, but from 
a standpoint a short distance east, near the great 
bend in the river and its canyon. Find Position 3 on 
the map. 

Positions. "The sinuous Colorado, yellow as the 
Tiber," north from BisselVs Point 

(a) What adjectives can you find to describe this 
valley adequately? The opposite rim is some ten 
miles distant. (What town is this distance from 
your school?) How high and how broadly based 
are the "temples" that stand like mountains within 
the valley? (Why should not railways cross the 
canyon ? ) Why such a difference in the horizon line 
to left and right ? Describe the amount and charac- 
ter of the vegetation. Infer the rainfall and climate. 

What time of day is it? 

(b) Notice the lofty rock pinnacle, one face in 
dark shadow, several miles distant on your right. 
Describe other forms produced by the same resist- 
ant layers of rock as those of the peak and its 
strongest terrace. Study the rock waste that par- 
tially mantles the opposite cliffs. What forms does 
it take? Whither is the rock waste moving? Why 
should the river be "yellow as the Tiber?" What 
climate do the amount and slope of the rock waste 



THE COLORADO CANYON 25 

indicate? How many tributaries are seen? Why 
no more? 

Represent by a sketch or line diagram the forms assumed 
by the rock waste. Draw a vertical section of the pinnacle, 
showing its changing slopes. 

For a fourth standpoint you descend the cliffs, 
cross the lower plateau, and then look eastward up 
the inner gorge. See the map 

Position 4. Up the Colorado river from Pyrites Point 
to Zoroaster Tower 

Though we stand here a full vertical mile below 
the upper rim of the Canyon, the Colorado is 1,200 
feet lower still. The river is nearly 200 feet wide at 
this point. 

(a) How would one feel if left alone here? De- 
scribe the scene. Study the river surface: do you 
judge the current to be swift or slow? 

How can you tell from the lines of foam that you are 
looking up stream? 

Study the left bank of the stream, at your right. 
What is its slope? Of what is it formed? Whence 
have loose materials come ? Why do they extend no 
farther toward the opposite bank? 

Can you account for their extending somewhat farther 
into the river just beneath you? Do you know of places 
along some brook or river near your school where similar 
forms and actions may be observed? Visit them again and 
report what you observe. 

(b) What is the form of the river course as it 
would appear on a map ? Just where do gravel bars 
occur? Why there? What is the river doing to the 
bank opposite a bar ? Why ? 



"26 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

State the difference in appearance between the rocks 
that outcrop next the river below and those at and above 
your level. How are the upper rocks arranged? Which 
sort of rocks is found in ledges at your home? 

You are to turn, now, and look down the inner 
gorge, moving a few miles eastward, that is, up the 
river. See the map. 

Position 5. West-northwest — Down Colorado river 
from foot of Grand View trail, 1,200 ft. cut 
through solid granite 

(a) If you had not stood far above on the pla- 
teau, what kind of land forms would you now be- 
lieve surrounded you? Compare the scene with the 
Yellowstone Canyon, if you have already seen it. 

How large would a vessel look on the river — a 
fifth of a mile below you ? The river averages over 
two hundred feet in width. What value has the 
river for navigation? What is its value for afford- 
ing water-power? Can it be used here for irriga- 
tion ? 

(b) How has this central gorge been deepened? 
What action must have made the gorge V-shaped, 
wider above than below? (Recall the effects pro- 
duced upon ledges or stone buildings in your vicin- 
ity by air, heat changes, and other natural forces.) 
Do the gorge walls most resemble those of the 
Yellowstone Canyon or those of Niagara Gorge? In 
what respects ? What kind of* rock gives valley walls 
of this sort? Contrast the higher cliffs before you 
with the gorge walls. Recall previous views and 
explain the peculiar forms above the gorge. What 
illustrations of either or both kinds of cliffs are there 
near your home? 



YELLOWSTONE PARK 27 

Supplementary Work. Read the story of 
Powell's adventurous exploration of this canyon of 
the Colorado, as given in McMurry's Pioneers of 
the Rocky Mountains and The West. Get the 
great government report of this expedition at your 
Public Library, and look at the pictures of the can- 
yon and river. 

Write a composition about the Colorado Canyon 
and its exploration. Illustrate it with drawings and 
with pictures cut from periodicals. The Atchison, 
Topeka & Santa Fe R. R. publishes illustrated leaf- 
lets about the Canyon, which may be obtained by 
sending postage stamps to cover the cost of mailing 
to the General Passenger Agent, Chicago, 111. 

Physical Geography. Examine specimens of 
rock from the walls of the Grand Canyon. Under 
your teacher's guidance tell the story of the 
formation of such rock layers. What change in the 
position of these rocks has taken place since their 
formation? What effects has the Colorado river 
had. on the rocks of the plateau ? What action has 
made the canyon several miles broad? Why is so 
much of the plateau uncut by river valleys? In 
what part of North America are canyons common? 
Why there ? What relation has the distribution of 
rainfall over the basin of the Colorado river to the 
formation of canyons in its middle course ? Make a 
collection of pictures of canyons for your school to 
enable comparisons. 

Yellowstone National Park 
Introduction. Draw a sketch map of the 




Copyright, 1907, by Underwood Sr Underwood 

Patented U. S.A., August 21, 1900. Patented Great Britain, March 22 } 1900 

Patented France, A/arch 26, 1900. S. G. D. G. Switzerland, t^p Patent Nr. 21,211. 



YELLOWSTONE PARK 29 

United States, and indicate the route from your 
home to the Park. Represent the mountain range 
that passes through the Park, and the rivers flowing 
from it. What have you learned about the scenery, 
climate, vegetation and animal life of these moun- 
tains ? 

The National Park 

You are now to stand on a bare mountain slope 
within the Park, and look far across its rugged 
heights. Find this Position 6 on the map of the 
Yellowstone in this Guide. 

Position 6, Wild deer in the Yellowstone National 
Park— during the winter 

Are the deer afraid ? Why ? Compare them with 
animals familiar to you. What have men done here ? 
How recently? Are young trees springing up 
rapidly? Is this well? Why? Observe the land 
surface here and from the other standpoints. 

Your next position is far out on one of the pla- 
teaus within the Park. Find Position 7 on the 
Yellowstone map. 

Position 7. Wild buffalo, one of America's "first 
families'* at home on a sunny slope in Yellow- 
stone Park 

Compare the bison with the dairy cattle familiar 
to you, and with the water buffalo of the tropics 
(p. 237). Why is there no larger herd on this ex- 
tensive plateau ? The vegetation directly before you 
is the so-called "sage brush,'' one of the most com- 
mon weeds in this part of the country. What rela- 
tion has the vegetation to animal life ? 



SO GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Leaving the plains, you next stand where one of 
the Park roadways affords a view west across for- 
ests whose springs are sources of the Columbia 
river. What ocean do these waters enter seven 
hundred miles before you? Find Position 8 on the 
Yellowstone map. 

Position 8, West from the Continental Divide over 
Shoshone lake to the distant Grand Teton 

Why this fine team and much traveled road in 
such a wilderness? Contrast the vegetation before 
you with that of the two preceding scenes and ac- 
count for the differences. What is a divide? The 
Continental Divide? How does a distant mountain 
peak look? 

You now change position from the southern part 
of the Park to its northern entrance, and there look 
north over the regular army post in the valley be- 
low you. Find Position 9 on the Yellowstone map. 

Position 9. Fort Yellowstone, among the mountains, 
headquarters of U. S. troops guarding Yellowstone 
Park 

Why are soldiers needed at the Park? How 
many do you estimate there are accommodations for ? 
Find the drill hall; the soldiers' quarters. And 
briefly describe the army post, its location, buildings 
and grounds. 

What gives the mountain slope beyond the post 
its peculiar forms? What kind of climate does it 
indicate? In review summarize your observations 
and tell what surface forms are found in the Park. 

Conclusion. What values have forest res- 



YELLOWSTONE CANYON 31 

ervations? Wild animal preserves? Why is the 
Yellowstone National Park well located for these 
purposes? Where are there extensive virgin for- 
ests in America? Why have they not needed pro- 
tection as yet? Are there large private wild animal 
preserves in America? Who< own deer parks and 
forests in Europe? 

Yellowstone Falls and Canyon 

Introduction. Trace the course of the Yellow- 
stone river. Where is the canyon? Read in 
your geography about lava, lava rock, lava soil and 
lava plateaus ; for the canyon is cut into beds of an- 
cient lava. 

You are to approach the canyon from the west, 
and take a position on jutting crags whence you may 
look westward at the lofty falls. Find Position 10 
on the Yellowstone map. 

Position 10. From Pt. Lookout, 1,200 feet above 
river, up Canyon to Lower Falls, (308 feet) 

Here at last ! How grand ! Seven hundred miles 
away before us is the Pacific coast, while the waters 
hurrying past us will swing around through Mon- 
tana and the Dakotas until they enter the Gulf of 
Mexico, 1,600 miles distant. 

Compare the falls with Niagara Falls in grandeur. 
How do the surroundings of the Yellowstone make 
the falls highly impressive? (Explain the relative 
economic values of the two falls.) What kind of 
rock must form that ridge extending from side to 
side beneath the falls ? 



32 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Contrast the position, or attitude, of this rock formation 
with that of the Niagara limestone. Compare the manner 
of wearing away the rocks that occasion the falls in these 
two cases. Which fall should last for the more centuries? 

You now turn your back to the falls and from the 
same standpoint look north along the wild canyon. 
Find Position u on the Yellowstone map. 

Position ii. From Point Lookout northeast down the 
glorious Canyon to the river 1,200 feet below, 
Yellowstone Park 

What other adjectives than glorious fitly describe 
the scene before you ? What feelings does it awak- 
en in you? 

What country is far away to your left? What 
surface division of North America lies now far away 
before us? What behind us? 

From the sky line judge what land form the river 
flowed across when it commenced to form the can- 
yon. Contrast the rock walls and waste slopes with 
those of Niagara gorge. What difference in the 
nature of the rocks is indicated ? Why is the gorge 
so flaring in form? Where are there forests? Why 
few trees just before you? 

Does the river bed slope much or little? What effect has 
this on the current? On the river's power to transport rock 
waste and cut into, or erode, its rock bed? What con- 
sequent effect upon the width of the valley at its bottom 
and upon the valley form? What changes in slope, current, 
action, and valley form are to be expected as ages pass? 

You are now to turn, and, having taken stand 
above the falls, on the other side of the valley, you 
will look up the canyon again. Find Position 12 on 
the Yellowstone map. 



YELLOWSTONE FALLS 33 

Position 12. From Canyon road, goo feet above the 
river, to Upper Falls 

Is this upper canyon rightly characterized by the 

same adjectives you chose for the view from Point 

Lookout ? Why ? What adds beauty to the canyon 

walls here? Contrast them with the foaming 

waters. 

What slopes has the river valley beyond the upper tails? 
They were formed before the outflow of Yellowstone Lake 
was turned into this course. What change in the depth and 
length of the Canyon will take place when the two falls have 
at last eroded the resistant ledges that uphold them? Rivers 
run to the seas ; in what direction do they extend canyons that 
they form? 

Supplementary Work. Arrange to study the 
hot springs and geysers of the National Park 
by means of the Library Reference stereo- 
graphs. Send a two-cent postage stamp to the 
General Passenger Agent of the Oregon Short 
Line, Salt Lake City, Utah, for a copy of 
IV here Gush the Geysers. Send stamps to the 
G. P. A. of the Northern Pacific R. R., for the cur- 
rent year's issue of Wonderland. Read descrip- 
tions of the wonders of the Park. Write a letter 
home telling about those you saw which most inter- 
ested you. 

What state or city parks are near you ? What are 
their scenic attractions? What is the value to a 
people of reserving tracts of natural scenery? Is 
there any land near your home that should be made a 
public park ? Are you using park advantages as you 
should ? What other nations have national parks ? 



34 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 
The Colorado Plateaus 

Position iR. A wilderness df sand— miles from hu- 
man habitations, Painted Desert of Arizona. 

Position 2R. From Red to San Francisco Mountains 
— a woody wilderness in sun-kissed Arizona 

Position 3R. Blown asunder by volcanic energies- 
Red Mountain, an extinct volcano, northwestern 
Arizona 

Position 4R. Nature's barriers conquered by human 
genius — railway over Canyon Diablo, Arizona 

Prepare to describe to your classmates the typical 
portions of Arizona seen from these four stand- 
points. From the higher plateau level of Position 1 
you look along a fault cliff which marks the break in 
the earth's crust ages ago when one earth block was 
raised higher than the other. What have weathering 
and the occasional rains done to the cliff? Notice 
the way the bedrock is arranged, its structure. What 
has wind done to the soil ? 

What is the outer form of the old volcanoes on 
these plateaus ? Their inner structure ? How do you 
explain these facts ? 

Compare the vegetation of the plateaus at lower 
(Positions iR and 4R) and higher (Positions 2R 
and 3R) levels. Account for the differences. 

What different ways of traversing the region do 
you observe D Why no good roads? How does sur- 
face form favor or hinder transport ? How are can- 
yon railway bridges constructed? 



geysers in yellowstone park 35 

Hot Springs and Geysers of Yellowstone Na- 
tional Park 

Find the location of these Positions on the Yellow- 
stone map in connection with the numbers 5R, 6R, 
etc. 

Position 5R. Cleopatra terrace and its mirror-like 
pools — Mammoth Hot Springs 

Position 6R. How an overflowing spring begins to 
build a terrace of " geyser ite" deposits 

Position ?R. A mountain of "petrified water" — Pul- 
pit terrace and Mammoth Hot Springs hotel 

Position 8R. Sunrise in Yellowstone Park, where 
Mother Earth's great fires still burn, northeast 

Position 9 R. "Black Growler, " whose steam kills 
trees, and whose roarings startle tourists 

Position 10R. The most famous sight in Yellow- 
stone Park—" Old Faithful" geyser in action, 
(height 180 feet) 

Position 11R. Peering into the mysterious crater of 
"Old Faithful" between its eruptions 

Position 12R. Fantastic beauty of " Z,one Star" gey- 
ser's cone (deposit from its waters) 

What is a spring? What springs, or springy 
places, near your school ? What causes them ? Are 
there mineral deposits — iron rust, sulphur, etc. — 
about any of them? Experiment by cooling a hot 
saturated solution of sugar or alum. State your ob- 
servations and conclusions. 

Prepare to tell about the many wonderful waters 
of the National Park and their surroundings, mak- 
ing topics to guide you in reporting your observa- 
tions to the class. Make illustrative sketches at the 
blackboard of what you have seen. Study specimens 
of geyserite, observe the terraces and geyser cones, 
and consider how they were formed. (In what part 



36 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

of a spring or pool would water cool first? With 
what results ?) How hot is the water thrown out by 
geysers? Where must it have been heated? How 
do you account for this? What force throws the 
water out? 

Read about geysers in Fairbanks' reader on The 
Western United States or in an encyclopaedia, and 
compare your conclusions with the explanations 
there given. Design a postal card for the National 
Park, and on it write an enthusiastic message home. 

The Yosemite Valley. 

Find these Positions on the Yosemite map in con- 
nection with the numbers 13R, 14R, etc. 

Position 13R. From Inspiration Point (J£. N. J$.) 
through Yosemite valley — showing Bridal Veil 
falls, J$l Capitan, Sentinel and Half Dome 

Position 14JR. Ml Capitan, a solid granite mountain 
3,300 feet high (N. W.), from across the beauti- 
ful Merced river 

Position 15R. North Dome, Half Dome and Cloud's 
Rest, (E.N.E.) from north of river opposite "Three 
Brothers" 

Position 16R. Nearly a mile straight down and only 
a step— from Glacier Point (N.W.) across valley 
to Yosemite Falls 

Position 17R. Nevada and Vernal Falls, and Cap of 
Liberty— from Glacier Point (E.S.M.) to Mt. Clark 
(11,250 feet) 

Position 18R. From Cloud's Rest (N.N.E. ) overtake 
Tenaiya to the distant Matterhorn, Sierra Nevada 
Mountains 

Before relating your observations in the Yosemite 

valley to your classmates, place a sketch map of 

California on the blackboard to show the location of 

the valley. Also a sketch map of the valley showing 

its principal features and the six Positions whose 

outlooks vou describe. 



38 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Tell about the valley, its bare, steep cliffs and the 
level floor with meadows and forests. Contrast the 
rare beauty of the waters as they enter the canyon 
with their beauties as they cross its floor. (Are 
there similar natural features on a modest scale near 
your home? Do you enjoy their beauty, too?) De- 
scribe the surrounding highland, and its domes and 
peaks, also the lofty Sierra whence the waters flow. 
Compare the Yosemite and Sierra with other can- 
yons and mountain ranges you have previously vis- 
ited on stereoscopic field trips. Think of compara- 
tive size, form, scenery, vegetation, use to man. In 
your descriptions choose your language carefully to 
convey the impressions and feelings you experienced. 

Like the fiords of Norway the Yosemite is a young 
valley form — a canyon — produced by active river 
and glacial erosion. Compare it with fiords you 
have seen (p. 145). Read in Fairbanks' reader on 
the Western United States his opinion that it is 
mostly due to river erosion. Notice the scars on the 
cliffs and the slopes at their bases: what action is 
taking place ? Account for the level valley floor as a 
result of recent stream action. Instance similar cliff 
and valley action and forms near your school. 

Will this region ever be the seat of a large popu- 
lation? Why should the Yosemite have been made 
a state park, then a national park? Ask your teach- 
er to select from the book by John Muir on Our 
National Parks some pages telling of his climbs in 
and about the Yosemite which both you and your 
classmates will enjoy. What present or proposed 
state or national parks are near your home? Why 
is it worth while to visit grand and beautiful scenery 



BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA 39 

at the expense of time and money? Write a letter 
to your classmates urging them to visit the Yosemite 
Park and telling them how much you value memor- 
ies of scenes there. 

Sequoiae — Big Trees of California 

Near the Yosemite Valley are the oldest and lar- 
gest trees of the world. You are to take 
positions in two of the groves. 

Position igR. Distant view of "Grizzly Giant" — 
base girth 104 ft*, largest branch 20 ft, cir., Mari- 
posa Grove 

Position 20R. Grizzly Giant, the largest living tree 
in the world, Mariposa Grove 

Position 21R. Throw head back and look up the 
great Grizzly Giant, Mariposa Grove 

Position 22R. Vegetable mammoths — remnants of 
species of a past epoch — scientist group, big trees, 
Calaveras Grove 

Position 23R. President Roosevelt amid nature y s 
wonders, driving through Wawona, big trees of 
California 

Position 24R. Troop I, 15th TJ. S. Cavalry on the 
trunk of the "Fallen Monarch, " Mariposa Grove 

Tell your mates about the Grizzly Giant and its 
companions, their height and girth as you saw them, 
their branches, foliage and bark. Choose adjectives 
so critically that you may express forcibly the im- 
pression you received. What attracts tourists to the 
groves? (Read suggestions on back of one of the 
stereographs.) Why should lumbermen wish to cut 
such trees down? Why does the government pro- 
tect them? Read about the sequoiae in Fairbanks' 
The Western United States , and in Our Country 
West. ( Perry, Mason & Co. ) 



40 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

What trees or groups of trees in your vicinity are 
famous and bear names? What is clone in your 
community to protect trees? What more needs to 
be done ? How can you help ? 

The Rocky Mountains. 

Position 25R. Great natural gateway, Garden of the 
Gods, Colorado 

Position 26R. Mount of the Holy Cross, Colorado 

Position 27R, Royal Gorge, Grand Canyon of the 
Arkansas, Colorado 

Position 28R. The famous railroad loop, near George- 
town, Colorado 

Position 29R. Homeward bound — an old hunter and 
daughters, in the Ramshorn Mountains, Wyom- 
ing 

Find on a map as nearly as possible where you 
are to stand as you take each Position. Trace the 
railway from Denver west past Georgetown, and 
that from Pueblo through the canyon of the Arkan- 
sas: whither do these lines lead? Using the scale 
on your map, estimate the distance from your po- 
sition in the Garden of the Gods (Position 25R), 
near Colorado Springs, to Pike's Peak. 

Contrast the form and structure of the mountains 
in Colorado with the Ramshorn Mountains. Com- 
pare them with the "temples" and the inner gorge of 
the Colorado Canyon. Which are most like the 
Canadian Rocky Mountains? Refer to questions 
on the Alps (p. 161) for help toward understanding 
and appreciating these ranges. 

What evidence that the Colorado peaks are lofty? 
Your study of Pike's Peak (Position 25R) is made 
in springtime. Where does the snow last longest? 
(See Position 26R.) Judge the amount of rainfall 



ROCKY MOUNTAINS 41 

by the vegetation. Why no trees on the summits? 
What value has the snow on the peaks to the plains 
below? Is the rainfall more or less than upon the 
Canadian Rockies? Give two reasons for your, 
opinion. 

Why are railways built into and across these 
ranges ? What course do they take ? Describe some 
of the engineering devices adopted — bridges, loops. 
Why a third rail in the Royal Gorge ? Why should 
hunting still be carried on in the mountains of Wy- 
oming? Why should the hunter be traveling where 
there is no road ? 

Prepare a talk to your classmates upon the Rocky 
Mountains, making topics as to their position, 
height, forms, vegetation, scenery, noted peaks, and 
such relations to man as pertain to irrigation, rail- 
ways, occupations, etc. Question your classmates on 
points they should know and inform them on other 
matters you have learned from the above stand- 
points. 

The Canadian Rocky Mountains and the Sel- 
kirks. 

Position 30R. The first glimpse of the Rockies from 
the foothills, Morley, Alberta, Canada 

Position 31R. At the base of Mt. Stephen, Field, 
British Columbia, Canada 

Position 32R. The great Illicillewaet glacier of the 
Selkirks, British Columbia, Canada 

Position 33R. The placid waters of Lake Louise 
and Mt, Victoria, Rocky Mts., Alberta, Canada 

Position 34R. Louise Valley and Mt. Victoria, Lag- 
gan, Alberta, Canada 

Position 35R. Lake Louise from the great glacier, 
Laggan, Alberta, Canada 



42 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Locate on your map the Selkirks and Rocky 
Mountains of western Canada. Trace the course of 
the Canadian Pacific R. R. past Morley and Field to 
the Pacific. Find the Canadian National Park. 

Compare the glorious peaks of the Cordilleras in 
Canada with the grand ranges of the United States 
as regards form, rock structure, vegetation, glacial 
snows, and scenic effects. Compare the foothills 
with the main peaks as to height and form (Position 
30R). Describe the ravines and alluvial fans of 
rock waste on the slopes of Mt. Stephen in the light 
of the directions for field study in the Alps (p. 162). 
Use the directions for the study of Alpine glaciers 
and moraines to aid you in understanding and de- 
scribing the glacial forms seen from the last four 
standpoints in Canada. Contrast the character of 
glaciers and moraines as seen near at hand (Posi- 
tions 35R and 34R) with their appearance at a dis- 
tance (Positions 32R and 33R). Can you see the 
moraine dam beyond Lake Louise from your stand- 
point in Position 35? Tell the story of the forma- 
tion of the lake as the glacier first halted for a term 
of years, then melted back. 

To what extent is the region settled? Which 
scene offers the best opportunity for human occupa- 
tion? Describe Field as a type of a frontier town. 
Why build a town in this valley? What occupations 
natural to its location? 



QUEBEC 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUP 

Where is Quebec? What is its history? Locate 
each of the following Positions on the accompanying 
map of Quebec. 

Position xR. The best fortified town in the western 
world — Quebec, from Levis, across the St, Law- 
rence, Canada 

Position 2 R. Hotel " Chateau Frontenae" and Duf- 
ferin terrace, Quebec, above old town and river 

Position 3R. Looking up the St. Lawrence from La- 
val university— citadel ahead beyond hotel, Que- 
bec 

Position 4 R. Warsh ips in the St. La. wrence — looking 
from heights behind citadel, Quebec, to Levis 

Position 5R. Quebec, rich in old memories and ro- 
mantic traditions — view from Laval university 
over upper town 

Position 6R. Looking over Louise basin and down 
the St. Lawrence from Quebec to Laurentian Mis. 

Position 7R. Birdseye view of docks and shipping 
on the St* Lawrence, at Quebec 

Describe the site of Quebec. Contrast the upper 
and lower divisions. What suggestions of Quebec's 
former importance as a fortress, and its present po- 
sition as a provincial capital? Give your classmates 
an account of the wharves and buildings along the 
river front; of the coasting craft and their cargoes, 
and of the ocean-going vessels. Describe the St. 
Lawrence at Quebec, and the land surface and towns 
seen from the city. Compare Quebec with other 
cities you have visited. 



44 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 




Copyright, 1907, by Underwood &• Under-wood 

Patented U.S.A., August 21, 1900. 
Patented Frame, March 26, 1900. 



Patented Great Britain, March 22, 1900 
Switzerland, C^D Patent ttr. 21,211 



MEXICO 

Introduction. Describe the position of Mex- 
ico in relation to North America as a whole and 
to the United States. Note (physical map) how 
the interior differs from the coastal margins in alti- 
tude. Describe the relief of Mexico. Upon a 
sketch map shade the portions which represent high 
lands and locate the mountain ranges. Designate 
three important peaks : what kind of mountains are 
they? Indicate the position of Puebla and Guana- 
juato. 

Consider with your teacher the varieties of cli- 
mate found in Mexico and the reasons for the diff- 
erences. Discuss also the distribution of the people 
and look for geographical reasons. 

Plateau Region of Mexico. 

You are now to enjoy a view from the tower of 
one of the famous churches in Puebla. Recall the 
location of Puebla. 

Position i. Popocatepetl, from old San Francisco 
Cathedral, Puebla, Mexico 

(a) What works of man and nature are strik- 
ingly contrasted in this scene? (What different 
kinds of thoughts does each suggest?) Sketch the 
outline of the distant mountain. Describe its form, 
the appearance of the summit and infer the origin of 
the peak. What reason is there for supposing this 
mountain to be verv lofty? Note how it seems to 



46 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

rise unbroken by foothills above the surrounding 
country : is this usually the case with mountains ? 

Is Popocatepetl an extinct or active volcano? (Read in 
Carpenter's Geographical Reader, North America, pp. 344 and 
345, or look it up in some other book.) Name other famous 
mountains of this type. What people hold a celebrated volcano 
sacred? What useful product is sometimes obtained from 
the craters of volcanoes ? What occurrences, recent and re- 
mote, illustrate the dangers of living in the vicinity of vol- 
canoes ? 

(b) Describe the surface of the land upon which 
Puebla is built. About how far, in general terms, 
does this kind of land extend beyond the edge of 
the city? How do these buildings compare in height 
with one another? Compare them in height with 
the business blocks and apartment houses of Ameri- 
can cities. What reasons, geographical or other- 
wise, can you think of to explain the growth of the 
city horizontally rather than vertically? What 
makes the climatic conditions of this site delightful ? 

What kind of roofs do most of the buildings have? What 
climatic conditions may, perhaps, be responsible for this form 
of construction ? Do you see few or many chimneys ? Would 
the houses here need to be provided with furnaces and steam 
heating appliances? Do you see any evidences of fires or 
factories in Puebla? Charcoal, which burns without smoke 
is used in Mexico. Why is coal not used? What effect must 
this have upon the development of industries requiring 
machinery ? 

Your next Position gives an unobstructed view of 
two of the principal types of land forms in Mexico. 
You are to stand upon San Juan hill, near Mexico 
City. 






PLATEAU REGION OF MEXICO 47 

Position 2. King of Mexico's mountains, Popocate- 
petl, from San Juan hill 

Without disturbing these people who seem to be 
unaware of our presence, look for a few moments at 
the landscape spread out before you. What are the 
things which you admire about that distant moun- 
tain? Describe the character and extent of the land 
between our standpoint and the base of Popocatepetl. 
In the middle distance at the right observe the haci- 
enda or plantation. What other indications of hu- 
man occupancy of the land do you see? What do 
you infer from these observations in regard to the 
habitability of this country? From the number of 
trees and from the general appearance of the land- 
scape what seems to be the prevailing condition of 
moisture ? What does the arrangement of the bush- 
es and shrubs in the foreground and middle distance 
suggest concerning the presence of water courses ? 

Describe the dress of these Mexicans. What two articles 
seem to be commonly worn ? What does the general ap- 
pearance of these people indicate about their enterprise and 
thriftiness? From what two sources is the Mexican stock 
derived? Which mainly? 

Recall the location of Guanajuato. Your next 
Position is to be taken there. 

Position 3. Guanajuato, rich in silver mines, and 
famous in Mexico's war for independence 

What is the character of the country around 
Guanajuato ? What kind of slopes seem to be com- 
mon in this part of Mexico? Describe the situation 
of the city in relation to the surrounding land. To 
what extent is agriculture likely to be carried on in 
a region like this? What occupation has brought 



48 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

so many people together in this community ? What 
places in the United States have like location and 
industries ? 

Describe the general appearance of the town in regard to 
the regularity of arrangement, width of streets and character 
of the buildings. What appears to be the kind of roof covering 
most of the houses? Note the half ruined wall at hand. It 
is built of the same material — adobe or sun dried brick — as 
the buildings of the town below. These brick are laid in mud : 
why would a wall built of adobe and laid in this way soon 
be destroyed in our climate? 

Summary. Prepare to recite upon the surface 
features of Mexico according to the following sug- 
gestions : — 

Describe the general appearance of the plateau 
near Puebla. Make comparisons with other portions 
of North America which it resembles in climate or 
surface features. Tell in what ways this plateau is 
useful to the Mexican people. How could its use- 
fulness be increased? 

Describe Popocatepetl as seen from a distance. 
Recall other famous volcanoes of the world which 
its appearance suggests. Contrast Popocatepetl in 
altitude and other respects with the mountains near 
Guanajuato. 

Describe the situation of Guanajuato. Make com- 
parisons in this respect with Puebla. Explain 
which has the more favorable site for a city. Give 
the reasons for Guanajuato's importance. Compare 
the general appearance and situation of Guanajuato 
with mining towns in the United States. In what 
respects do the buildings of Mexican cities differ 
from those of our own country? 



' life in mexico 49 

Life in Mexico 

Introduction. In preparation for the follow- 
ing standpoints locate upon your maps Mexico 
City, Zacatecas, and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 
In order to understand something about the origin 
of the Mexicans find out with your teacher's help a 
few facts about the early history of Mexico. What 
people of Europe conquered the original inhabitants ? 
What was the name of the most famous of these 
bold invaders? What was the purpose of the con- 
querors ? 

The natives of Mexico belong to the same race 
as the original inhabitants of the rest of North 
America: by what name is this race known? In 
Mexico today there are ten times as many of these 
people as ever lived at one time within the United 
States. What three classes of people are now found 
in Mexico? 

You are now to observe some of the different as- 
pects of Mexican life. Your first standpoint will be 
taken in the capital city. 

Position 4. Natives trading in the market square, 
Mexico City 

What brings this crowd of people here ? To what 
rank of society do they evidently belong? What is 
the most conspicuous and universal article of dress 
worn by the men? Wliat portion of the attire of 
that man standing upon the car track with his back 
towards us is Mexican and also Spanish? Do you 
know what language is spoken here (look at the 
signs upon the buildings yonder) ? What evidence 
close at hand of modern improvements in communi- 



50 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

cation? Does the manner of trading common in 
Mexican cities mark primitive or highly developed 
commercial customs? With railways and tele- 
phones, factories and systematic farming, what 
change in trade methods will come? 

Zacatecas, your next standpoint, is among the 
mountains and is important for its silver, mines. 

Position 5. Water-carriers at the fountain, Zacatecas 

What is the principal feature of this scene? Why 
is this a common center around which people gather? 
Describe the general appearance of these people. 
What kind of a head covering do they wear? What 
sort of clothing? What variety of receptacles do 
they bring to the fountain? What impression do 
you get from all these things concerning conditions 
of life among the mountain towns ? 

Where do you suppose this water comes from? 
How is it brought to the city ? Compare this meth- 
od of supplying water to a large number of people 
with our own convenient system. Which method 
is less likely to spread disease? 

What does the first word in that sign across the 
street indicate concerning the character of the shop ? 

Your next Position is on the Isthmus of Tehuan- 
tepec. 

Position 6. Homes and home occupations of the nat- 
ives of Tehuantepec Isthmus 

How do these people differ in stature from the 
Indians of our own country? They differ in other 
ways, too : the Mexican Indians depended not so 



LIFE IN MEXICO 51 

much upon hunting and fishing for a supply of food 
as upon the products of the soil. They were, there- 
fore, farmers. How may climatic conditions be 
responsible tor this difference in life habits? In 
what way do their dwellings differ from those of 
their roving kindred ? Which region is more densely 
peopled? More advanced toward civilization? 

Describe this hut : the kind of roof, walls, door- 
way. (Compare with the dwelling of the Filipino, 
p. 289.) Why are windows for the admission of 
light and air not provided? Against which condi- 
tion of climate — temperature or rainfall — is this 
dwelling intended to provide shelter? 

How does this house differ in construction and purpose 
from the hut of the Eskimo? What do you infer about cli- 
matic conditions from the dress of these people and from 
their habit of preparing their meals out of doors? 

Contrast the vegetation surrounding this village 
with that about the plateau cities. What is the rela- 
tion to climate? 

The woman nearest you is making corn cakes, or 
tortillas. She is now grinding the meal : how does 
she do it ? In that iron vessel at her right the grains 
of corn have been soaking in limewater. (What 
for?) When the Spaniards came here in 15 19 they 
found the natives making cakes in just this way. 
Mexico is, in fact, the original home of the Indian 
corn or maize. This grain forms the chief diet of 
these people. 

Describe other features of this scene : the style of dress 
worn by the women, the kind of skirt, the color of their skin 
and hair, the presence of ornaments around the neck. What 
peculiar custom do you see illustrated by the women standing 



52 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

in the background at the right? What do you infer from 
what you see here about the habit of dwelling together in set- 
tlements ? 

Summary. Be able to describe according to 
the following topics the people of Mexico, viz: 
classes of people according to race distinctions; ex- 
planation of the presence of each ; facts and features 
concerning the appearance and mode of life of the 
most primitive class; comparison of these people 
with their kindred further north; life in the cities, 
dress, customs and social conditions. 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUP 

Position iR. Extracting pulque from the maguey- 
plant, Mexico's favorite drink 

Position 2R. Natives making rope from the fibre of 
the maguey plant 

Position 3R. Natives weaving matting from the 
fibres of the maguey plant 

What plant cultivated for ornament in your own 
neighborhood is very much like the maguey in gen- 
eral appearance (Position iR) ? Why is it called 
by that name? In what important respect does the 
maguey differ from its local representative? How 
does the Mexican variety compare in size with a 
man ? In what kind of soil and under what climatic 
conditions does the maguey thrive? How do the 
leaves of the century plant differ in thickness from 
the foliage of ordinary vegetation? What does the 
plant store up in these leaves ? What is there about 
the appearance of the surface of the leaves which 
would lead you to infer that the plant is well guard- 
ed against loss of moisture from within? What 



LIFE IN MEXICO 53 

sort of armor do the maguey leaves possess which 
protects them against browsing animals? 

Observe what this man is doing (Position iR). 
That is a hollow gourd which he holds to his mouth. 
In a basin shaped depression in the center of the 
plant, made by cutting off the flower stalk just be- 
fore it is ready to bloom, from eight to fifteen pints 
of sap accumulate daily. How do you suppose the 
gatherer gets the sap into the gourd ? Note what is 
strapped to the donkey's back : into this the gourd is 
emptied. 

The juice at first is quite sweet. In a few hours, 
however, it begins to ferment. When fermented it is 
called pulque. Pulque is the national drink of the 
Mexicans. What beverage is common among the 
Germans? What drink do we associate with Medi- 
terranean lands? Pulque is intoxicating. Large 
quantities are consumed daily. It is called the curse 
of beggardom in Mexico: why? 

A variety of the maguey plant yields a product 
more useful to man than pulque: what is it (Posi- 
tion 2R) ? Name two things into which it is made 
(Positions 2R and 3R). Other common products 
are cloth and paper. Under the name of sisal large 
quantities of the maguey fibre are imported every 
year into the United States. It is used in making 
ropes and binding twines. Recall what you saw at 
the tips of the leaves and along their margins and 
tell why the maguey is sometimes called the thread 
and needle plant. What other plants furnish fibre 
for ropes, twine, and thread? Get specimens of 
some of these if you can and tell your classmates 
where each comes from, something of the con- 



54 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

ditions under which it is produced, and the special 
uses of each. 

Describe the appearance and dress of these na- 
tives and the conditions under which they are work- 
ing. Note the crudeness of their machinery. What 
do you infer about the price paid workmen in Mexi- 
co? What improvements would you expect Ameri- 
cans to introduce in the manufacture of rope and 
matting from the maguey ? 



SOUTH AMERICA 

ANDEAN REGION 

Introduction. Where is South America ? What 
is the most direct route from your home to its west 
coast? What does the relief map in your text- 
book tell you about the surface of western South 
America? What countries are crossed by the An- 
des? Recall your studies of the Pacific slope of 
the United States and Mexico, and under your 
teacher's direction review the relations of surface 
to climate, and of both to productions and life, in 
Mexico and Central America. 

You are now to visit Ecuador and Peru. Where 
are they ? Why is Ecuador so named ? What tem- 
peratures would you expect to find there? Do the 
prevailing winds blow from or toward the land in 
Peru? What should be true, therefore, as to the 
rainfall on the seaward slopes and coastal plain of 
Peru? What crops will find favorable temperature 
conditions on the lowlands ? On the plateau ? Find 
the location of Lima, Arequipa, and Quito on a 
map. 

Relief and Its Effects 

You are now to stand on the plowed fields of a 



56 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

great sugar plantation on the coastal lowland of 
Peru, and a few miles from Lima. 

Position i. Irrigating plains otherwise sterile, and 
planting sugar-cane on a farm at Santa Clara 

How busy these laborers! Just what are they 
putting in the soil? Compare this plan with the 
planting of corn. With planting potatoes. What 
plants are grown from cuttings in your community? 
Describe the steps in planting cane — the work of the 
mule with the panniers, the duty of the women, the 
task of the men. What does their dress indicate 
concerning conditions of temperature? 

Contrast the deep furrows to your right with 
those to your left as to the condition of the soil. 
Notice the soil color, the laborers' feet, the reflection 
seen. What preparations must have preceded the 
actual planting? Are they necessary in your state? 

Scan the landscape for vegetation : do you judge 
the climate to be moist or arid ? What advantage in 
locating this plantation close to the mountains and 
at the mouth of a valley? 

Notice the ranges rising in the hazy distance. 
What is the form of the nearer ridges? What ac- 
tion has given them this form ? Whence the ma- 
terials from which the land beneath you has been 
built up by nature? Is there near your home any 
such sharp division between two land forms as you 
see here ? 

What is the name of the land form on which you 
stand? Compare this plantation in size with the 
farms near your home. Recall your observations 
in North America, and judge whether land forms 



ANDEAN REGION 57 

like this favor or hinder farming upon a large scale. 
Why should they? Large capital is necessary to 
construct irrigation works and to erect a sugar mill 
with costly modern machinery. Will this favor 
large or small plantations? 

When spare time allows, take the following two Positions 
near Lima, comparing them with that just visited by all the 
class, as to surface, climate, productions and laborers. 

Position xa. Harvesting sngar-cane on a great plantation 
between Lima and the Andes—Santa Clara 

Position ib. Picking cotton with Chinese labor on irrigated 
land at the foot of the Andes, Vitarte 

We now ascend the great highland. Your next 
standpoint is in the valley of the Rimac, above Lima. 

Position 2. How the Oroya R. R. follows Rimac 
river up to its source in the Andes — gorge near 
Cacray 

What adjectives are appropriate in descriptions 
of the scenery of this gorge? W^hat capital letter 
does the valley resemble in respect to the angle be- 
tween its side slopes ? Look to see what happens to 
the rock waste formed on its crags and cliffs. What 
kind of current and bed has the river ? What work 
must the river be doing? What relation has this 
valley to the land of the sugar plantation? Recal- 
ling your studies of North American canyons, tell 
how this valley was made. 

Find the roadway, close to the river. And the 
railway a little above it, in the distance. Notice the 
black mouth of the railway tunnel that pierces the 
projecting cliff at a higher level. How does the 
railway rise from the river bank to this tunnel in so 
short a distance? Why use the name "switchback?" 
Why is one necessary? Will railway building and 



58 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

commercial development in a country with this relief 
proceed rapidly or slowly ? Find what country sup- 
plied the engineers and capital to build this Oroya 
railway. 

What evidence do you see of homes in this val- 
ley? How is the soil of the little fields on either 
bank kept from washing into the river ? 

At some other time study a village and its terraced fields 
below another mountain railway line. Study further also the 
difficulties and feats of engineering on the Oroyo line. 

Position 2a. San Bartolome town and terraced fields, on a 
shelf of the Andes, 5*000 feet above the sea 

Position 2b. Jn the the heart of the awesome Andes— peering 
from Oroya R. R. down into the Rimae River gorge. 

■Position 2c. Chaupichaca bridge and tunnel where Oroya 
Railroad, 9,472 ft. above the sea, assaults nature's barrier 

Your next standpoint is in southern Peru, on a 
roadway of a broad valley nearly a mile and a half 
above sea level. Recall where its city, Arequipa, is 
located. 

Position 3. Pack-train of donkeys and llamas on 
the rocky highway to Arequipa — (Chachina 
Mountains beyond) 

You stand face to face with a descendant of the 
Inca Indians who once ruled all this highland reg- 
ion. Describe the motley group of beasts of burden 
beyond him. How many kinds of animals are 
there? Name the two kinds used in North Ameri- 
ca. The dozen odd beasts in care of the old peon 
are llamas. Describe their form, and their hair. 
Notice them carefully and detect what they are 
used for. 

Describe the road. Are there any ruts? Why? 
Why are stone-walls needed? Does the road rep- 
resent considerable or little development in Peru? 



ANDEAN REGION 59 

Contrast transportation facilities here with those 
about your home. What effect must the character 
of roads and means of communication have upon 
the marketing of farm produce in Peru? What 
upon industries in general ? 

What familiar field and garden crop is growing 
vigorously here? What kind of a climate does it 
indicate? What do the garb of the peons and the 
hair of the llamas suggest as to the climate of the 
adjoining districts? Near us on the right are 
fields of lucerne, a staple fodder crop hereabouts. 
What corresponding crops are important in your 
state? Do the houses in view suggest a sparsely 
settled or well populated valley ? 

Look up to the noble peak above, an inactive 
volcano. What suggestions of its conical form do 
you see? What climate at the height of its sum- 
mit? What relation have the snows there to the 
cotton and sugar plantations of the coastal plain, 
fifty miles behind you? 

When work permits, step to the geography reference table 
and take two more Positions to study the trails and travelers 
of the plateau regions of Peru and Ecuador. 

Position 3a. Traveling up among the Andes— natives on the 

trail between Ambato and Riobamba 
Position 3b. Coming down a "rough trail over Ml Misti— 

volcano's peak showing beyond steam of crater 

You are next to stand within one of the basins 
of the high intermontane plateau of Ecuador, beside 
the main highway to the capital from the south. 
Recall the position of Quito. 



60 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE- STEREOSCOPE 



Position 4. Ice-crested Chimborazo towering zo,4g8 
feet towards the sun, north from road to Quito 

Towards what natural feature of this landscape 
are your eyes inevitably drawn? What do you find 
particularly fascinating in its appearance? From 
the condition of the summit of Chimborazo, located 
so near the equator, what must be true of its alti- 
tude? 

From the summit of this volcanic peak one looks 
down the steep Pacific slope. The ocean is on your 
left. What country is behind you? The streams 
from this basin pass through' a narrow ravine in 
the great eastern range of the Andes, at your right : 
into what great river do they flow? 

What is this peon doing? How deeply is the 
ground stirred? Is a good furrow turned over? 
What kind of plow must he have? Compare his 
team and their harness with the corresponding outfit 
of a farmer in your vicinity. What conclusions do 
you draw as to the education, enterprise and pros- 
perity of this typical peasant of Ecuador? What 
does his cloak indicate as to the temperature? 

Notice the two travelers approaching you, and the 
effect of their moving feet upon the roadway. Is 
this a season of abundant or limited rainfall ? Note 
the character of the vegetation. What do you infer 
about the climate ? How heavy a crop of wheat or 
barley is to be expected here as compared with the 
yield of corn about Arequipa ? Does the population 
appear to be sparse or abundant ? Why should this 
be so? 



ANDEAN REGION 61 

When your teacher permits make an opportunity to take 
two other Positions on this highway, that you may the better 
know and describe the road, and the surface, vegetation and 
scenery of the country it traverses. 

Position 4a.— A squad of State Cavalry on Quito road during 
a little revolution— Mt. Inica at southwest 

Position 4b. Cotopaxi (19,613 ft.), highest of active vol- 
canoes, N. from Quito road. 

Notice the squad of mounted soldiers on the Quito road; 
what have you read about revolutions and dictators as char- 
acterizing some Spanish-American republics? 1 

It will be interesting to climb one of the grand volcanic 
peaks: when convenient take three Positions on the way up 
Pichincha, the volcano near Quito. Tell the class about the 
trip. 

Position 4c. A halt for breath, 14,000 feet up the volcano 
Pichincha, view west towards distant summit. 

Position 4d. Ice dealers of Quito collecting snow near sum- 
mit of Pichincha, an equatorial volcano 

Position 4c Where Pichincha' speak rises 15,706 ft. on the 
equator— smoking crater at right 

Supplementary Reading. Your own observa- 
tions should be supplemented by reading those re- 
corded by others. Carpenter's geographical reader 
on South America tells about the plantations around 
Lima, and of the Oroya railway, in Chapter VIII. 
Pages 44 to 46 and J2 to 76 describe plateau con- 
ditions. One of the Youth's Companion series, 
Strange Lands Near Home (Ginn & Co.), re- 
counts the construction of an Andean railway, while 
a chapter on "The Land of the Llama" depicts the 
difficulties of traveling on the high plateau. The 
South American Republics, one of "The World and 
Its People" series, in chapters 14, 15 and 17, gives 
much helpful, interesting information. Macmillan 
& Co. publish a school book composed of brief se- 
lections from the works of explorers and travelers 
in South America. It is one of a series on "Des- 



62 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

criptive Geography from Original Sources." Sev- 
eral selections on Ecuador and Peru will interest 
as well as instruct you, especially pages 182 to 187 
and 191 to 193. If the books are not all in your 
school library, ask the Public Library to secure 
them for you. 

Conclusions. You have stood upon the coastal 
plain of Peru, within the gorges of the Andes, on 
fertile irrigated valleys and bleak plateau levels, and 
have looked up to the towering volcanic peaks. You 
have studied maps and descriptions of these features. 
Now make a series of topics to guide you in either 
an oral or written account of the relief of Peru and 
Ecuador and its effects. Consider the effect of ele- 
vation upon temperatures. And of the relief upon 
rainfall. Either now or after studying the production 
of cocoa and other industries of the region, plan to 
state the effect relief exerts through climate upon 
vegetation, occupations and productions, contrasting 
conditions on the lowlands with those of the plateau, 
and both with those of the mountain peaks. Set 
forth the effect of relief upon methods of transporta- 
tion and the development of industries, contrasting 
the coastal plain with the highlands. If your ac- 
count be written, imagine that you are a United 
States consul at Guayaquil or Lima, and that your 
report is to be a guide to American investors and 
merchants. 

Cities and People 

Introduction. Many of the cities of the tropi- 
cal Andean countries are situated in the interior at 



ANDEAN CITIES AND PEOPLE 63 

a considerable elevation. With your teacher's help 
discuss the advantages which these cities possess 
over the coastal settlements, in healthfulness, in re- 
lation to agriculture and in their location in regard 
to the mining regions. Recall what you have 
learned in Positions I to 4 and state the disadvan- 
tages of their location to transportation and trade. 

Find upon the map in your text book the most 
important cities of the plateau. Note especially 
those you are to see : Cuzco, Quito, Lima, Arequipa, 
Cerro de Pasco, Guayaquil and Riobamba. Read 
what Carpenter says about Cuzco (Geographical 
Reader, South America, pp. JJ, 78). 

Read in your text book and geographical reader 
about the Incas. (Carpenter's Geographical Read- 
er, South America, pp. 48, 49, 55, 57, 58, 78.) To 
what race of people did they belong? How did 
they compare in civilization with the Indians of 
Mexico? Of North America? Tell some things 
which they accomplished. By what European 
people were they conquered? What was the object 
of the conquerors ? How did they treat the Indians ? 
What effect would this be likely to have upon them ? 

You are now to observe the principal features of 
the cities among the basins and valleys of the Andes 
and something of the appearance and customs of the 
people. Your first Position will be taken upon the 
brow of a hill outside of Cuzco. Recall where that 
place is located. 



64 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 5. Cuzco, once the richest city in America, 
southeast from fort of the Inca kings, seized by 
Pizarro 

What makes a point of vantage like this always 
worth seeking out ? What geographical features of 
this landscape deserve mention? What kind of 
buildings stand out prominently above all others in 
the town? 

How does the area upon which the city is built 
differ from the surrounding country? For what 
purpose is the terrace directly below us used ? What 
evidence do you see of similar fields beyond the 
city? Describe the situation of Cuzco, noting the 
kind of land upon which it is built and its relation 
to the mountains. What climatic advantage is there 
in preferring the more moderate altitude? What 
cities of North America or Eurasia resemble Cuzco 
in their location? 

Find a vacant square directly in front of you in 
the center of the city. What kind of a building 
stands upon the farther side ? Note the white cover- 
ings of the market booths near the fountain in the 
middle of the square or Plaza. 

How do the buildings of Cuzco compare in 
height with those in our own towns and cities? 
What is one reason for this ? What do you observe 
in regard to the presence or absence of chimneys? 
What do you infer from this about the climate? 

Compare this outlook with a birdseye view of 
your own city or one near your own home: what 
common features? What striking contrasts? Find 
some enclosed courtyards. Is there more or less 
evidence of appreciation of trees and natural beau- 



ANDEAN CITIES AND PEOPLE 65 

ties here than in American cities? Does the view 
indicate more or less wealth than in North America ? 

For other Positions to be studied when you have leisure, 
from which the characteristics of the cities of the Andean 
plateau may be observed, see the following: 

Position 5a. The center of the equatorial Andes— Quito, 
looking west 50 miles toward distant Pacific 

Position 5b. Prosperous and beautiful Arequipa, 8,000 ft. 
above sea— east to Pichapicha Mts. (21,000 ft.) 

Position so. Lima from hill at northeast— Rimac river, twin- 
tower cathedral, bull-ring, shops and homes 

Find the location of the different places upon the map. 
Note the situation of each in relation to the mountains as 
seen from the selected standpoints. Describe differences in 
general appearance and in special features. 

You will now take your stand among the people 
in the vegetable market in the Plaza Principal of 
Cuzco. 

Position 6. Selling potatoes in their native land — 
market before Jesuit church and college, Cuzco 

Describe the people whom you see in the market 
place. What are they doing here? How are they 
dressed (select characteristic portions of their cos- 
tume such as headgear or outer garments) ? To 
what race do they apparently belong? Describe the 
features which are distinctive: nose, cheek-bones, 
hair and complexion. What position in the social 
scale do these people hold? How does their con- 
dition today compare with that of former times? 

Where are such markets the customary way of 
conducting local trade? Where do stores conduct 
nearly all traffic? Will such markets as these in 
Cuzco gain or lose in relative importance as Peru 
develops education, transportation and commerce? 



66 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Compare this scene with others of a similar nature in other 
parts of the world. See pages 6, 49, 86, 158. 

What symbols upon the church yonder indicate 
the form of religion prevalent in this country? 
What ornamental structure occupies a conspicuous 
position in the market place? Why should it be 
peculiarly attractive in this climate? In what way 
does the surface of the plaza differ from that of 
parks and squares in our own country? What 
seems to be the most important and common use 
to which the Plaza is put? In this respect compare 
it with our public squares. 

Observe the character of the surface features seen ov.er the 
roofs of the buildings. Recall what was learned in this re- 
spect from Position 5 or bear the present view in mind when 
taking that standpoint. 

Some time during the day when you have a spare moment 
take Positions showing Plazas in other places, viz. : 

Position 6a. Lima's beautiful cathedral, the heart of the 

city, fronting the palm-shaded Plaza 
Position 6b. Quaint Chaupimarca square with its usual 

variety of passers-by— Cerro de Pasco 
Position 6c. Government Building and principal public 

square with cathedral at left, Quito 

Tell your classmates what features are common to them 
all. 

Your next Position is to be in Cerro de Pasco. 
Recall where it is located. It is 14,000 feet above 
the sea and is the highest city in the world. You 
will find yourself in one of the curious streets typi- 
cal of cities among the Andes. 

Position 7. Everyday life in Cerro de Pasco— stieet 
lined with Spanish balconies and Indian roofs 

How does this street differ from those in cities 
of our own country? What does the gutter in the 



ANDEAN CITIES AND PEOPLE 67 

middle seem to be intended for? Is the water run- 
ning or stagnant? (In what ways should we con- 
sider this feature objectionable?) What must be 
the method of carrying goods along a thoroughfare 
like this (look just beyond the pole at the left) ? 
This is a typical business street; what evidence do 
you see of stores? (The ground floor is occupied 
by shops and usually has no connection with the 
rest of the house.) 

Notice the many overhanging balconies and how 
the roofs project over the sidewalk; of what ad- 
vantage are these features in this climate? (What 
similar feature do you recall of -American village 
houses?) What advantage are these balconies to 
the South American during one of the many street 
festas ? Of what are some of the roofs constructed ? 
In what other parts of the world are roofs like 
these common? (See pages 50, 81, 231, 307.) 

Characteristic street scenes of other cities among the An- 
des to be studied after school or when other opportunities 
occur, can be seen from the following Positions: 

Position 7a. Typical architecture (Spanish and Inca stylesj 
Calle de Triunfo {Triumph St.), Cuzco 

Position 7b. Beautifully carved balcony overlooking an 
open sewer— a typical hillside street, Cuzco 

Position 7c. Maldonado St. where mule-trains from Guaya- 
quil enter Quito— San Domingo church at right 

Report to class how .the peculiarities of the street in Cerro 
de Pasco are repeated elsewhere. 

From the next standpoint in Guayaquil, Ecuador, 
you will have an opportunity to see something of the 
surroundings of a home of the wealthier classes. 
Recall the location of Guayaquil. 



68 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



Position 8. High life and low life— a glimpse of a 
rich man's beautiful home in Guayaquil 

What does the fence indicate about the feeling of 
the owner toward the general public? Describe its 
height, design and construction. From the appear- 
ance of this and of the space within what do you 
infer concerning the means and culture of the 
owner? To what extent does the iron work of the 
balconies and piazzas bear out your conclusion? 
Contrast the dress and general appearance of the 
boy inside the garden with that of the urchin out- 
side. What does this comparison bring very vividly 
to your mind concerning differences in station? 
What evidence do you see of life within the house? 

From the kind of plants cultivated in the garden 
and from the arrangements of the house — the bal- 
conies, swinging windows, tilting blinds and broad, 
shaded entrance — what do you infer concerning the 
prevailing climatic conditions? What would make 
this house seem very inviting in the middle of the 
day? Compare the house and the climatic con- 
ditions with those of Cerro de Pasco. What are 
the causes for the differences? 

Ask to see the following when you have finished your 
assigned work. Note the furnishings, conveniences, appear- 
ance and dress of the people and adaptation to climatic con- 
ditions. In Position 8b you stand in the reception room of 
the presidential palace in Quito. Ask to see these when you 
have finished the assigned work. 

Position 8a. Home life in the family of a cultivated and 

wealthy Spanish citizen, Guayaquil 
Position 8b. Sumptuous splendor of official reception rooms 

in the President's palace, Quito 

In the next Position you will find yourself in the 



ANDEAN CITIES AND PEOPLE 69 

midst of a family gathering in Riobamba. Recall 
• the location of this place. 

Position g. Up-conntry hospitality among the na- 
tives—dinner in preparation, Riobamba 

From the general appearance of these people and 
their surroundings what is the present state of cul- 
ture and civilization of the descendants of the 
famous Incas? What reasons can you suggest for 
entertaining this company out of doors rather than 
inside the home? What rather striking article of 
dress seems to be popular with the women? Note 
what the young woman directly in front of you 
across the yard is carrying upon her back ; for what 
purpose? How do you explain the fact that the 
men do not perform that errand ? 

Of what material is the division fence yonder 
built? Describe the construction of the hut: its 
walls and roof. What provision is there for light 
and air? Do you see any chimney? Would you 
expect to find one? Give reasons. From the con- 
struction of the roof and the presence of the tree 
tops beyond it what do you infer concerning the 
amount of rainfall in the Andean basin of Rio- 
bamba ? 

What does the distant view indicate concerning the situa- 
tion of Riobamba? 

Make comparisons when time permits between this hut and 
the one occupied by the natives of Tehuantepec, Mexico 
Page 50. Compare also with Positions following. 

Position ga. Houses on stilts where laborers' families live 
—cacao plantation, £a Clementina 

Return to rosition 8. High life and low life— a glimpse of a 
rich man's beautiful home in Guayaquil 

Return to Position 8a. Home life in the family of a cul- 
tivated and wealthy Spanish citizen, Guayaquil 



70 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

You will now step inside the hut. 

Position 10. A country housewife grinding oats for 
bread— home on Ambato-Riobamba road 

How do these surroundings impress you? De- 
scribe briefly the people you see — their general ap- 
pearance, attractiveness and occupations. How is 
the process of grinding the oats carried on ? What 
implements are used? Of what are they made? 
How is the flour which you eat prepared? Why 
would you prefer not to have it ground in this way 
and in this place? (Compare the method shown 
here with what you saw in Mexico, page 51.) 

Observe the construction of the hut. Of what 
and how is the partition at the right built? What 
material was used in making the other wall? De- 
scribe the door post. What comforts and enjoyments 
can a dwelling like this afford? Where would you 
expect the tenants to spend most of their waking 
hours? (After having taken Position 9 compare 
the facts observed with your answer.) To what 
extent does the climate encourage this practice? 
What are the consequences of this custom upon the 
improvement of the home interior through the in- 
troduction of articles of furniture, improved utensils, 
pictures and books? What relation may there be 
between conditions of culture and refinement as seen 
here and climatic conditions? What effect does 
isolation from the rest of the world have upon the 
perpetuation of these backward conditions? 

Compare these natives of the Andes with the Indians of 
the United States. Compare the political revolutions of South 
America with the Indian wars of North America. Viewing 



ANDEAN CITIES AND PEOPLE 71 

these people give one reason why Andean states have devel- 
oped education, industry and stable governments so slowly. 

Summary. Recall the location of Cuzco and 
state for what historical fact it is famous. Describe 
the principal features of the landscape in and around 
the city. Discuss the advantages of Cuzco's situa- 
tion in regard to suitable climate and available land 
for agriculture, the possibilities of an abundant 
supply of good water and the conditions of health- 
fulness. Give some other reason for the establish- 
ment of cities among the mountains. 

Describe the Plaza de Cuzco, what it is, its loca- 
tion, use, ornamental feature, and important build- 
ing facing it. Make comparisons with similar fea- 
tures of other cities in South America and in the 
United States. Let your description include an ac- 
count of the people you saw there. 

Write about the streets of these Andean cities, 
their width, construction, peculiarities, usefulness, 
buildings and life. 

Compare the homes and life conditions of the 
wealthiest and poorest of the South American people. 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUP 

The following standpoints have been selected in 
Peru for supplementary work. You will take four 
Positions on the coastal lowlands and four upon the 
highlands. Contrast the productions of the two 
regions. Compare the list of products you observe 
with statistics stating the leading exports of Peru. 



72 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position xR. Harvesting sugar-cane on a great plan- 
tation between T,ima and the Andes — Santa Clara 

Position 2R. Grinding sugar-cane in the mill on a 
large plantation at Santa Clara 

Return to ib. Picking cotton with Chinese labor on 
irrigated land at the foot of the Andes, Vitarte 

Position 3R. Weaving home-grown cotton for the 
South American trade in a fine modern mill 'at 
Ttima 

Position 4R. Work today at a silver mine that en- 
riched the Spanish centuries ago, Cerro de 
Pasco 

Position 5R. Shaft-house, power-house and dumps 
of a copper and silver mine, Cerro de Pasco 

Position 6R. Sheep-raising in a sunny valley among 
the Andes near Cuzco, (farm buildings at right) 

Position 7R. Washing and drying wool from the 
Andean table-lands for foreign trade 

In connection with the first Position above, men- 
tioned recall what you saw in Position 1 of the regu- 
lar study group. Both views represent the same 
time of year. How long then is the growing sea- 
son? Contrast the climate with that of your own 
home land. Prepare to describe the general appear- 
ance of the plantation, the work which is now going 
on, the methods employed (whether modern and 
efficient or primitive and time-consuming) and the 
kind of people engaged. Sum up the story of the 
planting, harvesting and grinding (see Position 2 
above) . 

Compare the scene shown in Position ib with 
cotton picking in the southern states of North 
America (see p. 293). Observe the general appear- 
ance of the field and of the plants, the kind of land 
upon which the crop is growing in contrast to the 
distant background. What relation have furrows \q 



LIFE AND WORK IN PERU 73 

irrigation ? What marks the line of the river which 
supplies the water? 

Observe what becomes of some portion of the 
crop. (Position 4R.) Think what this may mean 
in regard to the future industrial development of 
Peru and of its neighbors. Remember the change 
which has been and still is taking place along simi- 
lar lines in our own country. 

What are the age and sex of the workers? Are 
looms elaborate or simple? Is the cloth plain or 
colored? Do you think it probably fine or coarse? 
Why? 

Be ready to tell your classmates what you have 
learned about cotton raising and cotton manufactur- 
ing in Peru. 

Positions 5R and 6R show some differences be- 
tween modern and primitive methods of handling 
copper ore in Peru. Note what they are and inci- 
dentally describe the appearance of the mines as 
shown in Position 5R. This railroad seen in Po- 
sition 6R has recently been extended to Cerro de 
Pasco : what change in the manner of transporting 
the ore is thereby made possible? What effect will 
this have upon the development of the industry? 

Study Positions 7R and 8R in their relation to 
the wool industry. Note those geographical condi- 
tions typical of a large part of the Andean countries 
found in Position 7R which are favorable for pastur- 
age. Note the condition of the herbage and infer 
why sheep are better adapted for this kind of a 
region than cattle. Describe the process illustrated 
in Position 8R. 



74 geography through the stereoscope 
Cocoa Industry of Ecuador 

Introduction. Have you ever drank cocoa? 
What three other beverages are made from products 
derived from the seeds of the cacao tree? What 
use have products from these seeds in candy mak- 
ing? In what other forms have you eaten or used 
them? Get some cocoa shells and some cocoa nibs 
(fragments of the roasted seeds) at your grocer's, 
and examine them to judge the size and appearance 
of the beans. 

More cacao is shipped from Ecuador than from 
any other land. Study the map in your textbook 
that shows winds and rainfall for January. How 
far south do the heat equator and the belt of 
equatorial rainfall extend on the west coast of 
South America at that time? Why do forests and 
the production of cacao characterize the coastal low- 
lands of Ecuador rather than those of Peru, then? 

Find Guayaquil on a map. Notice the rivers that 
flow into the Gulf of Guayaquil. Passing up one 
of these rivers, first by a little river steamer, then by 
canoe, one comes to the cacao groves on the lower 
slopes on the Andes foothills. You are now to take 
position among the cacao trees of the great planta- 
tion of La Clementina. 

Position ii. Gathering cacao pods from which 
chocolate and cocoa are produced, T>a Clementina 
plantation 

How do the workmen remove the cacao pods? 
Where do these form on the tree? How is the 
pruning knife managed so as to reach pods high in 



COCOA INDUSTRY OF ECUADOR 75 

the tree as well as near the ground ? What is done 
with the pods as they are cut off? Notice carefully 
the pile of pods at the feet of the second workman. 
What do they suggest' to be the next step in the 
work? (From Position 13a you may note where 
this step is usually taken.) 

Does this grove of cacao trees seem more like 
wild forest or like an orchard ? Were they planted 
or did they spring up by chance ? How large are 
the trees? Describe the leaves. Notice how they 
are strewn upon the ground : what relation does this 
have to soil fertility? 

When your teacher permits, take a Position among the 
younger trees of a Costa Rican cacao plantation, and con- 
sider the same questions. 

Position na. Gathering cacao pods— one of Costa Rica's 
most valuable products — near Port I^imon 

You are next to stand with a few of the many 
boys of La Clementina plantation on one of its 
roadways. 

Position 12. Cacao pod cut open, showing "beans" 
that produce chocolate and cocoa— plantation in 
Ecuador 

What has the boy done to a cacao pod? In what 
ways does it resemble a cantaloupe? How thick are 
its walls? You have examined the shells of cured 
cacao beans; you now see them enclosed in a mass 
of pulp. What- process must have come between 
these two stages ? 

What seems to be the common method of travel ? 
What does this suggest as to the size of the planta- 
tion, and as to the method of collecting the pods or 
beans? How is this plantation bridge made? Are 
the timbers laid for use by wheeled vehicles? 



76 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Describe the vegetation on the banks of the 
stream course, and where the roadway lets the sun- 
light in. What conclusion is justified as to rainfall 
in this region and season ? ' From the dress of the 
children what do you judge to be true as to tempera- 
ture conditions? 

When possible take position with these Indian workmen 
beside their homes, to see how they live in this tropical 
land. 

Return to Position ga. Houses on stilts -where laborers' 
families live, — cacao plantation, I,a Clementina 

Your next Position at the center of the planta- 
tion, where the seeds are cured and prepared for 
shipment. 

Position 13. Raking over 14 tons of cacao beans on 
the "driers" at l,a Clementina Plantation 

Upon what are the great quantities of cacao seeds 
spread out? Why not on the ground? After hav- 
ing taken Position 12, decide whether or not the 
color of the seeds, as compared with those seen in 
the boy's hands, indicates that curing has just com- 
menced or is well under way. What influences will 
affect the seeds in this broad area? What is the 
barefooted workman near you doing, as shown by 
his trail left among the beans? What effect will his 
work have upon the pulp, which tends to cling to 
the beans as it first ferments, then dries? What is 
the man on the next floor doing with his large hoe? 
Notice the rows of covers, each with two handles. 
When would they be used? 

In the distance is a cacao grove. Notice the 
dense foliage of the cacao trees, and also the large 
forest trees that rise above them. What advantage 



COCOA INDUSTRY OF ECUADOR 77 

will these great trees afford the cacao trees ? What 
do you judge must be the steps in establishing a 
cacao plantation in a forest district? 

Notice the buildings, especially that nearest you 
at the left. Describe its walls and roof. What do 
they suggest as to the climate ? Extensive buildings 
are needed, for the cacao beans are here packed for 
export. 

When time permits, take your stand again in a cacao 
plantation of Costa Rica. Notice the process of opening 
cacao pods. Contrast the appliances for drying the beans 
with those of Ecuador. Consider which method suggests 
a dry season and which the sudden showers of a region of 
tropical rainfall. Take your position also on the canoes 
and steamers that connect the cacao plantations with Guaya- 
quil, that you may observe methods of transportation in a 
region of tropical forests and river channels, where road 
building is difficult. Consider wherein the dwellings seen 
and the wharves indicate the recurrence of floods. Report 
your observations and conclusions to the class. 

Position 13a. Opening the pods and drying the cacao beans 
on a plantation near Port l,imon, Costa Rica 

Position 13b. Gliding up into the heart of the country- 
natives poling our boat up Babahoyo river 

Position 13c. How the equatorial sun goes down in glory 
—outlook from a fLoating inn at Babahoyo 

Position 13d. 'Way down on Babahoyo river— hacienda of 
a rich planter seen from passing steamer 

Position 13c Guayaquil, the great equatorial shipping 
port, north from ferry on Guayas river 

You are next to stand in the courtyard at the rear 
of a cacao warehouse of Guayaquil, where the beans 
are prepared for export. 

Position 14. Sorting cacao for shipment to Ameri- 
can and European chocolate factories— Guaya- 
quil 

Describe the scene: the manager, how he differs 
in dress and general appearance from the others, 



78 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

the number of workmen, the kind of work being per- 
formed by different groups, and the utensils used. 

What does the need of spreading the cured beans 
on mats in the sun indicate as to the climate of 
Guayaquil? Since the beans need to be freed from 
dirt and graded, here in Guayaquil, do you infer 
they have come from a large plantation or from 
many small ones ? What sorting of fruit and other 
valuable farm produce before shipment is usual in 
your state ? What farm products of your region are 
sold to merchants at some primary market near 
you? 

Notice the thick lips, broad nose and the color of 
the third workman at your left. What race do you 
think he represents? Why should he be met here 
rather than on the plateau ? Why should few of the 
race be found on this west coast of South America 
as compared with the east? 

When assigned lessons are learned take your stand in 
several places in Guayaquil to know better this port whence 
cacao is exported, noting the wharves and the steamers on 
the river. 

Position 14a. Queer boats and market rafts before Custom 

House on Guayas river 
Position 14b. Where donkeys wear trousers— cloth seller 

and bystanders on Malecon St., Guayaquil 
Position 14c. How imported goods are carried from Custom 

House— railway along street in Guayaquil 

£0 



COCOA INDUSTRY OF ECUADOR 79 

Supplementary Work. Confirm your own 
observations by the accounts of others to be found 
in the geographical readers named on page 61. 
Using the index of your textbook, and those of any 
commercial geographies available, learn the several 
important cacao producing regions of the world. 
Copy a small Mercator's map, omitting all details 
of coastlines, and mark thereon regions where cocoa 
is an important product. If you have studied the 
productions of tea on the plantations (p. 318) write 
a page comparing the production of cacao with that 
of tea. 



EUROPE 



IRELAND 

Introduction. Where are the British Isles? 
Draw a map of the North Atlantic Ocean. 
Draw a map of the British Isles. Under your teach- 
er's guidance recall the facts as to Ireland and Irish 
life already known to you. Are you acquainted 
with any people born in Ireland? Why did they 
choose to come to America ? 

Cottage Homes of Tenant Farmers 

You are now to pay a visit to' the homes of a 
number of Irish peasants, meeting them at their 
doors, and entering one cottage. You will also 
stand on the lawn before the mansion of an Irish 
landlord. There is so much worth observation that 
two excursions are planned, one day being given to 
the study of the Buildings, another to the Life of the 
Farm Home. 

Position x. Denis O'Shaughnessy's home, County 
Tipperary 

Position 2. A characteristic home, Ballintoy village, 
County Antrim 

Position 3. Milking the goat— country life in County 
Monaghan, northeastern Ireland 

Position 4. "Bee-hive" cottages with roped roofs- 
country dwellings along the highway in County 
Donegal 

Position 5. Fireplace for burning peat, where all 
family cooking is done— a home in Ireland 



IRELAND 81 

Position 6, Mansion of t,ord Powerscourt (south 
facade) on his 26,ooo-acre estate, near Dublin 

BUILDINGS 

Describe the house of an Irish tenant farmer : its 
size, height, number of stories, number of rooms; 
material of the walls, the chimney, the roof, the 
floors; doors and windows, number, size, appear- 
ance; manner of heating; finish of exterior and in- 
terior. Contrast the cottage of a tenant with the 
landlord's mansion. 

Some centuries ago England conquered Ireland 
and much of the land belongs to the English land- 
lords, to whom the Irish farmers must pay rent. 
Who profits by this arrangement? What do you 
think must be true of her common people to make 
the country prosperous ? Why should the Irish con- 
tinue to bitterly oppose English rule? 

Compare Irish tenant homes with farm houses in 
your vicinity. Are the farms near you worked by 
the owners, or rented to tenants? If the rents 
charged in America were excessive what would the 
tenants do? Why have not the Irish tenants the 
same relief? Why have many Irish immigrants to 
America sent back for relatives to join them ? 

The Farm Home 

Describe the leading features of the home and its 
life. Interior; the fireplace and means for cooking, 
the variety and character of furniture. Dooryard : 
farm animals — kinds, numbers, condition, measure 
of freedom ; vehicles — uses, character, means of shel- 
tering. Contrast the surroundings of tenant homes 



82 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

with the grounds about a landlord's mansion. Ten- 
ants; dress, impression as to their enterprise and ac- 
tivity, with reasons for opinion. 

Whenever an Irish tenant by draining wet land, 
erecting outbuildings, or in other ways improves his 
holding, or in his dress and home surroundings 
shows evidence of prosperity above his neighbors, it 
is customary for the landlord to raise the rent. By 
what argument could a landlord seek to justify this? 
What effects of such policy, for instance in the meth- 
od of caring for animals, did you observe about 
Irish tenant homes? A few years ago the English 
government passed laws designed to aid the tenants 
to buy their farms from the landlords. How will own- 
ership of fields and homes tend to make Irish farmers 
prosperous? And Ireland productive? Will it 
tend to increase or to diminish emigration? Give 
two reasons for your conclusion. 

The peasants of many countries of Europe rent 
small holdings, and conditions in Ireland are in large 
part typical of tenant life elsewhere. In what sec- 
tion of our own country are there large plantations 
which are now divided into small farms that are 
rented from year to year? What is the historical 
reason for this? It has been easy for any one to 
become a land owner in America because the people 
have been few and the fertile lands extensive and 
cheap : the government, that is all the people, has 
owned Western lands and has given homesteads to 
any who would occupy them. In Europe the popu- 
lation is dense and land is dear ; moreover most lands 
have been held for centuries as private property, 
chiefly by the nobles. 



HOMES OF TENANT FARMERS 83 

Literature. Read stories of Irish life by 
Jane Barlow. Some were written for young folks 
and were published in the Youth's Companion. 
Castle Blair is a wholesome story of child life in 
Ireland that incidentally presents the relation of 
landlords and tenants. (D. C. Heath & Co.) 
Goldsmith's poem, The Deserted Village, gives a 
beautiful picture of Irish conditions years ago : read 
it and recite in class the lines that please you most. 

Peat 

Introduction. Recall the story of the form- 
ation of coal, which you learned while studying the 
geography of the United States. Under what con- 
ditions of climate and soil were the deposits of coal 
formed? What prevented the vegetation from de- 
caying, just as forest leaves and twigs decay near 
your school? How was the vegetation changed to 
coal? What kind of climate has Ireland? Why is 
it called the "Emerald Isle?" 

(a) You are now to take your stand on a peat 
bog of the Irish plain, where two boys are helping 
the father to cut and stack a store of fuel for their 
fireplace. 

Position 7. Cutting peat, Allen bog— decayed vege- 
tation forming one foot each 800 years, central 
Ireland 

What is the boy nearest you ready to do? Where 
will he take his load of peat? What tools do you see 
in use ? How does the man cut the blocks of peat ? 
Have you ever found any sphagnum, or peat moss 
in the woods? Under what conditions as to soil 



84 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

moisture does it thrive ? Would slopes remain moist 
and mossy near your home? Since the bog covers 
the slopes before you, in what way must the climate 
of Ireland differ from ours? 

(b) Now take the specimens of peat and study 
them. 

What is the color of peat? Of what is it com- 
posed? Lift it: describe its weight. Press it: what 
qualities do you perceive? Describe the effect of 
soaking a piece of peat in water. What must be 
done to the freshly cut peat to prepare it for the 
fireplace ? 

(c) After this study of peat in hand you can 
profitably turn again to the observation of the peat 
in place on Allen Bog (Position 7). 

What kind of vegetation do you see at your feet ? 
What must be the relation of peat to this surface 
vegetation? And why cannot chunks of peat fall 
apart as would a spadeful of garden soil? 

Why does the peat need to be piled up? (Recall 
your study of peat). 

Judge from the scene whether or not peaty soil 
favors farming. Why do you think this should be 
true? 

(d) We now follow the peat to the fireplace, re- 
turning to Position 5. 

Describe the fireplace. How is the peat arranged 
for burning? How is water heated or food cooked 
with an open peat fire ? When were such open fire- 
places used in America? Why replaced here by 
stoves sooner than among Irish tenants? 



CUTTING AND BURNING PEAT 85 

Supplementary Work. If the school has 
enough peat, burn some and see whether it burns 
slowly or rapidly, with much or little heat. Com- 
pare it with wood. With coal. 

Why do not Irish farmers burn coal or wood 
rather than peat? Why is not peat used as fuel in 
the United States ? In what part of North America 
is peat abundant, although little used as yet? Find 
out about the use of peat in making briquettes for 
fuel in Europe, as described in an encyclopaedia or 
in the Consular Reports to the Department of Com- 
merce and Labor of the United States Government. 
(See years 1903-5 especially.) In what climates 
and latitudes is peat most abundant? Why is this 
so? Are there bogs where peat might be cut near 
your home ? Do they extend up slopes as in Ireland ? 
Why? 

Write for your local paper an interesting account 
of peat, telling how it is formed, how it is prepared 
for use, and the manner of use in Ireland and else- 
where. State some of the conditions controlling the 
■ distribution of peat deposits, and if possible illustrate 
this by a sketch map showing the distribution of 
peat in Europe. 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUP 

Street Markets and Farm Products of Ireland 

You are now to visit a half-dozen Irish towns, 
taking your stand in the square or broad street of 
each at the time when the weekly or monthly fair is 
being held. Not only can you there study Irish 
towns, people and produce; in addition it is true that 



86 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

an Irish market place is a type of a method of selling 
country produce still very general throughout 
Europe. 

Position xR. Cattle fair, the great market-day, 
north on main street, Kanturk 

Position 2R. The Fair, the great pig market-day 
N.E, toward railway station, Kiliush, County 
Clare 

Position 3R, Market place, N.W. to cathedral- 
dressed pork for shipment 

Position 4R. Marketplace of Athlone (2£.) monthly 
Sheep fair of adjoining counties 

Position 5R. Vegetable market, and bridge over the 
River Shannon (jj.) Athlone 

Position 6R, The hay market, Galway 

Position 7.R. Poultry and egg market, principal 
street, S.W., Ballybay 

Picture for your classmates a market square of 
an Irish town on market day, making a vivid word 
painting. Very simply draw the background of 
stores, churches and other buildings, then depict the 
changing scenes of the market itself. Tell how the 
farmers bring their produce to market, and how it is 
displayed for sale. Describe the buyers and the bar- ' 
gaining. 

Why is it convenient to set apart a special week 
day when certain kinds of products will be on sale 
at a central town? Why were village market days 
admirably suited to times when population was 
widely scattered, with few large towns and no good 
roads? Why are stores that open every day con- 
venient now? There is a Haymarket Square in 
Boston : what reminders or remnants of market day 
customs exist near you? In what ways do Ameri- 
can farmers market their products now? 



MARKETS AND FARM PRODUCTS 87 

What are the principal products of the farms of 
Ireland ? Why hold the pig market beside a freight 
train? Where is there ready sale for all the farm 
products that Ireland does not need? In what lines 
are Irish and American farmers competitors in a 
common market? Show the relation between the 
level soil and moist climate of Ireland, with slight 
mineral resources, and its leading productions. 

Write a half-column letter home to your local 
paper telling in terse English the characteristic 
scenes at an Irish fair you have just visited, supple- 
menting the descriptions with some account of the 
origin and value of this method of trade, and com- 
paring it with customs in your home community. 



GREAT BRITAIN 

London 

Introduction. Review your knowledge of 
London under your teacher's direction. Consider, 
for example, the age of London, its size, its position 
and commerce with relation to England and the 
continent, to Europe and the oceans, also the life in- 
terests of Britain and the world that center there, 
such as government. What would you like to see 
in London? 

You are now to go to London and look eastward 
from a steeple in East London over the roofs and 
the river. Find Position i on your map of London 
in this book. 

Position j. Looking east over London's dockyard 
district, Whiteehapel, and down the Thames 

Here we are above busy London. Towards what 
part of England are we looking? Into what water 
does the river flow far before us? How broad is 
the Thames here ? What kind of craft in view upon 
it? Find a steamer's funnel beside the low ware- 
house roof of a riverside dock. Find another, paint- 
ed white, marking an enclosed dock basin. What 
kind of industry is denoted by the tall chimneys? 
(What advantages favor its development in a sea- 
port commercial center and adjoining the docks?) 
Would you like to live below us or work in the little 
shops and stores there? Describe the streets and 
buildings. Is it a new or old quarter of London? 




o H 

Copyright, 1907, by Undei-wood & Underwood Patented U. S. A., August il, 1900. Patented Grea 




in. March 22, .1 



-> Miles 
Patented France, March- 26. i9pO. S.G.D.G. Switzerland, <=&=> Paten% iVr. 21,211 



- 



LONDON 89 

The home of the wealthy or the poor — the "other 
half?" Sum up what you have seen. 

We are now to take our stand where the Thames 
widens to its broad estuary, beside the docks of the 
outport of Tilbury, beyond which the largest ocean 
steamships do not proceed. This Position will be 
five or six miles away before us, or to the east, 
further east than our map extends. 

Position 2. Royal Albert docks along the Thames at 
Tilbury below London (area 588 acres) 

How many steamers in view? Cables lead to 
ano'ther at our right, and there are still others with- 
in these busy docks. What are these men doing? 
Whence do you judge these bales of cotton have 
come? Whither going? And whence the bales of 
jute beyond? They are consigned to Dundee, Scot- 
land, to be made into bagging like that on the bales 
next you. Why are there railways where we stand, 
and broad, low-lying boats, lighters, beside the 
steamers? Evidently what kind of business is car- 
ried on at these docks ? What machinery for hand- 
ling bales and crates do you see on the docks and on 
shipboard ? 

When time allows take Positions 2a and 2b and see the 
Anglian from Boston enter the dock basin and discharge pas- 
sengers. View the extent of the port, and note the cranes 
again. 

Position za. Entrance to Royal Albert docks, Tilbury, on the 

Thames, below London 
Position 2b. Ocean liners at the Royal Albert docks on the 

Thames below the world's greatest city— London 

We shall now return some miles beyond or west 
of our first Position and take our stand on the 
Thames embankment, looking northeast to St. Paul's 



90 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Cathedral, over a mile distant. Find Position 3 on 
the London map. 

Position 3. Northeast down the Thames from Char- 
ing Cross pier past Waterloo bridge to St. Paul's, 
London 

Describe the craft that ply above London Bridge. 

Their uses. (Why no bridges in East London? 

Why no docks here, reached through draw-bridges? 

What, then, determined the location of London 

Bridge and the city's center?) 

When time allows, take standpoints on London Bridge and 
beside the Tower Bridge for further observation on questions 
above. Locate Positions on the map of London. 

Position 3a. London Bridge, London 
Position 3b. The Tower bridge, London 

What building in view from Position 3 is most 
impressive? Why? Estimate the height of the 
dome of St. Paul's by comparison with build- 
ings about it. Why expect London to be a religious 
center ? 

At your leisure take the following standpoints in the heart 
of London, and then describe the famous- buildings that de- 
note other phases of life that center in this world metropolis. 
Locate on the map of London. 

Position 3c. Tower of London— famous old palace and pris on 
of royalty 

Position 3d. In the heart of London; Bank of England {fore- 
ground) holds $100,000,000 in its vaults 

Position 3e. The Royal Exchange, London 

How is the bank of the river protected and made 
beautiful? What is growing (notice the shadows 
beneath us) on the embankment? Judge from the 
last arch of Waterloo Bridge the width of this river- 
side parkway. Why construct an expensive drive- 
way around this bend in the river's course? Why 
no embankment in East London? Has any city or 
town near your home made its water-front beautiful ? 



LONDON 91 

What opportunity for such improvement do you 
know ? 

When time allows take another stand on the embankment. 
Notice the Egyptian obelisk. Locate this Position on the map 
of London. 

Position 3f. London's greatest hotels, Cecil and Savoy, Lon- 
don 

We now pass forward into the heart of London, 
and look out upon the street traffic and up to St. 
Paul's Cathedral. See the map. 

Position 4. Z/Udgate Hill, Z,ondon 

Several million people live within a few miles of 
the Cathedral. What means of traveling to and 
from business do you see? Compare the convey- 
ances with those common in America. Note the time 
on the clock-face. (Where will the people be twelve 
hours later? What part of your town or city is re- 
placing homes with store and office buildings? Is 
its center or its suburbs increasing in population? 
What relation have elevated railways and tunnels to 
such changes in London?) 

Compare the street and buildings with those you 
have seen in other great cities. Why so narrow a 
street when traffic is so abundant? How does the 
Cathedral impress you when near at hand ? Describe 
its front and towers. 

After school tasks are completed, take standpoints in the 
West of London, where people of means and fashion live and 
trade, and observe also two famous points on the Thames 
above London. The first two Positions are given on the map 
of London. The others are a number of miles further west 
than the map extends. 



Position 4a. Oxford street, London 

Position 4b. Regent street, a fashionable West End district 
for retail shops, London 

Position 4c. Windsor Castle, from across the Thames, Eng- 
land 

Position 4d. Course tilling in after the races— Henley regat- 
ta, England 

Why should the West End be a wealthy residential quarter? 
Consider where the docks and mills are and where workmen 
must live ; also the prevailing winds of temperate latitudes, 
and their effect on London smoke. Why are rowboats typical of 
upper Thames? How can so small a river have so broad 
and deep a mouth? 

Discussion. Having looked long and thought- 
fully from several typical standpoints in Lon- 
don, and then having gained all the supplemen- 
tary aid that pictures, maps, books, and the recollec- 
tion of knowledge gained of other cities can give, 
you are ready for a closing discussion of this im- 
perial capital. Consider with your teacher the vari- 
ous human interests that center there (for example, 
banking, manufacturing), and the buildings that 
serve them ; the advantages of site and position that 
have favored London's growth, and briefly its his- 
tory; and its general characteristics — streets, parks, 
buildings — as compared with American cities or 
other European capitals. 

Sum up the discussion by writing a letter home 
from London, or a travel sketch for your school 
paper, describing several typical scenes irj^ the city 
and setting forth some important truths you have 
learned in connection with your observations there. 
State which of all the scenes closely studied seems 
to you most characteristic of London, and why so. 



BRITISH GOVERNMENT 93 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 

Government of British Empire 

Why is the English government called a mon- 
archy? What countries are in the British Empire? 
Who make the laws for the British Isles? You 
are now to take several more standpoints in London, 
seeing some of the rulers and government buildings. 
These Positions are indicated on the map of London. 

Position iR. King Edward VII. receiving the Lord 
Mayor's sword, Temple Bar, June 8, 1902 — the 
city's homage to the sovereign 

Position 2R. Indian prince doing homage to his sov- 
ereign Queen — showing King Edward, Earl Rob- 
erts and Lord Kitchener, Buckingham palace 

Position 3R. Princes, nobles and many varied troops 
of an empire on which the sun never sets, corona- 
tion review, 1902, England 

Position 4R. Houses of Parliament, London 

Position 5R. House of Lords, Houses of Parliament, 
London 

Position 6R. [Governors of an empire of nations— 
Hon. Joseph Chamberlain, Premiers and admin- 
istrative heads of colonies 

How do the King and Queen dress on state 
occasions? By what ceremonies is their station 
acknowledged? What feelings do their subjects ap- 
pear to hold toward them, as shown in the people's 
faces? What kind of folk do the nobility appear 
to be? (Position 3R.) 

Tell the class about the Houses of Parliament, 
their situation, extent, and architecture. Compare 
the hall where the House of Lords meets with an 
American legislative chamber. What standpoints 
suggest the Empire ? Which its relation to the Em- 
peror? Which that the people choose their rulers? 



94 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Premier Laurier of Canada sits on Chamber- 
lain's right among the heads of the Empire. What 
other parts of the Empire must be represented ? Do 
you judge these men obtained office by right of 
birth, as nobles, or were chosen for their ability and 
merit ? 

Compare the governments of the British Isles and 
the United States, noting both resemblances and 
differences. 

Scottish Lowlands and Highlands 

How is Scotland reached by American tourists? 
What great Scots have, you read about, besides the 
patriot leader, Robert Bruce? Study the distribution 
of low and high land, preferably as shown on a col- 
ored relief map. Find the river Forth and the town 
of Stirling. You are to stand on a castle crag rising 
amid the lowlands, then to visit the Highlands. 

Position 7R. booking from Stirling Castle on the 
cliffs northward toward the rugged highlands, 
Scotland 

Position 8R. From Stirling castle west up the beauti- 
ful Forth valley toward the Trossachs 

Position gR. Outlook 2V.J5. from Stirling castle- 
scene of heroic struggles— to Wallace monument 

Position 10 R. The "Brig o'Turk" over the glassy 
stream at Glenfinlas in the Trossachs 

Position 11R. Ben Venue, veiled in the highland 
mists — seen from across l,och Achray inj.he Tros- 
sachs 

Position 12R. Oban and the hills around its land- 
locked harbor 

Here Mary of Scotland lived as a little princess, 
and later as Queen : paint as a word picture for your 
classmates the sweep of landscape from west to 
east upon which she looked, describing the beauties 



SCOTTISH LOWLANDS AND HIGHLANDS 95 

of the land-forms, the homes, the cultivated fields 
and woodlands. This Forth Valley is typical of the 
lowlands: for what industry is the land suited? 
Contrast the extensive fields of the castle estate with 
the gardens of the tenants' cottages. Who must till 
and harvest these broad grain fields ? Compare con- 
ditions here with those you observed in Ireland; in 
America. 

Describe the scenery of a famous Highland val- 
ley, the Trossachs. What means of livelihood here- 
abouts ? Are the Lowlands all level ? The Highlands 
everywhere rugged ? In which section is population 
dense? Compare Oban and Edinburgh in size, 
character, situation, and by contrasting their sur- 
roundings account for some of their differences. 
Would you prefer to travel in the Highlands or 
Lowlands? In which region would you expect to 
find more wealth ? More education ? More of old- 
time customs? Some use of Gaelic, the old Scotch 
language ? Compare the Connecticut Valley and the 
Berkshire Hills of New England with the divisions 
of Scotland. 

Edinburgh 

You are to visit the capital of Scotland. On a 
map, find the city, also the Firth of Forth. 

Locate four following Positions on the accompanying map. 

Position 13R. Edinburgh, from Calton Hill, S.W. to 

the castle, over burial ground 
Position 14R. Princes street, Edinburgh 
Position 15R. Edinburgh castle, from Grassmarket, 
Position 16R. Home of John Knox, Canongate, Edin- 
burgh 

Position 17R. The Forth bridge, from the bluff, Scot- 
land 



96 



GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



What do you judge to be the center about which 
this old capital of Scotland grew? Was the city 
located with relation to war and government, or 
commerce and industry ? Does it appear today more 
a trade and residential or a factory city? Why 
rank it "one of the most romantically beautiful cities 
in Europe?" Compare it with London, choosing 
first your lines of comparison, such as age, size, posi- 
tion, land surface of site, famous buildings. 

Picture to vour mates the Castle. Also Princes 



F I R T B OF F Q.R T U 



EDINBURGH 

■.and Environs 




Patented U.S.A., August 21, 1900, 

Patented France, March 26, 1900.' S. Gi D. 



Patented Great Britain, March 22, 1900 
Switzerland, cj^jl Patent Nr. 21311. 



EDINBURGH 97 

street, with its cars, coaching parties, Scott Monu- 
ment, and adjoining railway and gardens. Contrast 
the buildings along Princes street with those at Can- 
ongate and the Grassmarket, and account for the 
difference. Is Edinburgh an old or new city? 
Growing or decaying? 

How do railways cross the city? What relation 
has the Forth bridge to Edinburgh's prosperity? 
Describe the bridge and its situation to the class, 
using blackboard sketches. What evidences of 
Scotch thrift just below you at South Queensferry? 



THE IBERIAN PENINSULA 

Introduction. Locate Spain and Portugal 
in relation to the rest of Europe and to the adjacent 
bodies of water. Directed by your teacher and 
guided by a map showing physical features, describe 
the prevailing conditions of altitude and relief. Dis- 
cuss also the variations in temperature and rainfall 
in different portions of the peninsula. Consider the 
relative importance of Spain and Portugal among 
the powers of Europe ,at present, and their position 
in the past. What characteristics of the Spanish and 
Portuguese are responsible for this difference ? 

Physiography and Climate 

From six Positions you will have an opportunity 
to study the typical features of climate and relief in 
widely remote parts of the Iberian peninsula. Al- 
meria and Granada, two of the Positions, are easily 
found upon an ordinary map. The others may have 
to be located approximately by reference to well- 
known cities and towns. For example, Burgos is 
situated midway between Valladolid and Bilbao; 
Montserrat is among the mountains immediately 
north of Barcelona ; Elche is about half way between 
Alicante and Murcia ; and Bussaco is just a bit west 
of Coimbra in Portugal. Upon a simple outline map 
designate these Positions by figures, or locate them 
in a similar way upon a sketch map on the black- 
board. 



IBERIAN PENINSULA SPAIN 99 

You will now take your stand at the first of these 
viewpoints in Spain. 

Position i. Almeria, its Moorish citadel and mag- 
nificent harbor, from the old quarries, Spain 

You are looking easterly. What body of water is 
this bay a part of? In which direction is Africa? 
Europe ? What does the appearance of the land be- 
low and of the slopes of the nearby hill, with respect 
to vegetation, indicate concerning the amount of 
rainfall here? What does this fact lead you to 
suppose about the direction of the prevailing wind : 
towards the land or away from it? (Give reasons.) 
Describe the kind of land upon which the city is 
built and which also stretches beyond the town. 
Note what limits its extent landward near the city 
and in the dim distance. This level tract is a por- 
tion of the coastal plain which borders most of the 
peninsula. Except in the southwest of Spain and 
in the southern part of Portugal, it occupies a nar- 
row strip between the mountains and the sea. ( Re- 
call the map of the physical features.) 

Observe the carriage road at your feet. Why does 
it twist and turn so much? What had to be done 
to the cliff to make its location possible? What 
other kind of road do you see at a lower level ? In a 
region where steep slopes border closely upon the 
sea, what are some of the difficulties in locating 
shore roads? Contrast these conditions with the 
facilities for movement upon the coastal plain. 

Why is the site of Almeria better adapted for the 
location of a city than the land nearer to us ? What 
advantages of position does the Alcazaba, or forti- 
fied castle above the town, possess ? What difference 



100 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

in conditions between the past and present, makes 
this fortress upon the southern coast of Spain of 
less importance than it once was? Note the break- 
water which helps to form a harbor for this port. 
Tell whether or not you would expect to find natural 
shelters upon the coast of Spain. ( Give reasons. ) 

Our next Position is to be at Granada, the last 
stronghold of the Moors. From the brow of a steep 
hill we shall look towards the west. 

Position 2. The Generalife, the Alhambra, and Gra- 
nada (west) from the "Silla del Moro" (Chair of 
the Moor), Spain 

Note the gray stone wall of the once formidable 
towers, the stretch of country beyond, the city close 
against the base of the hill, and the cathedral in line 
with the castle. 

Behind us rise the steep slopes of the Sierra Ne- 
vadas with their snow-covered ridges. In the dis- 
tance what do you see dimly outlined against the 
sky line? Find the river not far away. Describe 
the kind of country over which you are looking and 
its relation to the surrounding features. 

What do you find throughout the length and 
breadth of this beautiful landscape that indicates a 
prosperous and numerous population? What evi- 
dence do you see of cultivated fields? What does 
the river suggest concerning the amount of rainfall 
and the opportunities for watering growing crops? 
(Consider also of what advantage the presence of 
the nearby mountains back of us with their snowy 
tops would be in providing means for irrigation.) 
In general, what is your impression in regard to the 
fertility of the fields near Granada? 



IBERIAN PENINSULA SPAIN 101 

You will now view the northern part of Spain, 
as seen from Burgos, half way between Valladolid 
and Bilbao. Find on a map where we are to stand. 

Position 3. Burgos and the cathedral, 1221, A. D., 
one of the marvels of Gothic architecture, Spain 

What is the most prominent building in Burgos ? 
How does it compare in beauty and cost with the 
other structures? What does this suggest concern- 
ing the importance of religion in Spain? What 
further illustration of this fact do you find in the 
other Positions? 

Describe this interesting scene close at hand. 
Where is the dog, the shepherd's faithful assistant? 
Spain used to be famous for fine wool merino sheep. 
(See p. 303.) Lately these have been dying out 
and are being replaced by coarse wool breeds. What 
does this tell you of the enterprise of the Spaniards ? 
What does the condition of the grass at our feet 
indicate concerning the abundance of feed? The 
amount of rainfall? (Why is this kind of land bet- 
ter adapted for the raising of sheep than of cattle?) 
At the extreme right of the field of vision and be- 
yond the buildings in the middle distance, what kind 
of vegetation do you see ? To what extent does the 
surrounding country appear to be wooded ? Taking 
all these things into account, what do you infer 
about the amount of rainfall around Burgos? 

What kind of line will represent the tops of the 
distant slopes? What type of land-form finds rep- 
resentation in this portion of Spain? 

Our next Position is among the mountains just 
north of Barcelona. Recall this location. 



102 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 4, The mountain paradise of Montserrat* 
(east) over ragged heights, Spain 

What adjectives describe the kind of scenery in 
Montserrat? Describe the width and depth of the 
valleys, the degree of slope, and the amount of ir- 
regularity of the surface in this scene. A region like 
this is said to possess strong relief. (What other 
portions of the world have a similar aspect? What 
river valley in the United States does this present 
one suggest?) Upon the opposite side of the valley 
what evidence do you see of man's attempt to con- 
struct roads? Describe the footway below us. 
What effect does a land of strong relief like this 
have upon the movement of people and the transpor- 
tation of merchandise? What difficulties are there 
in the way of Montserrat ever becoming useful to 
man for agriculture? For grazing? 

Many of the rivers of the interior of Spain flow 
through valleys cut deep into the plateaus. What 
effect does this have upon their usefulness for irri- 
gation purposes? For commerce? 

Elche, a celebrated oasis in the province of Valen- 
cia in southeastern Spain, is the next standpoint. 
Recall its position upon the map. 

Positions. Irrigation of an artichoke £eld (opening 
the sluice lets the water pass off), Elche, Spain 

What kind of trees are these? Why are you 
somewhat surprised to find them growing so lux- 
uriantly in Spain? (Elche is about the same lati- 
tude as St. Louis, Cincinnati and Washington, in our 
own country: how do you explain the difference in 
climate?) Note the irrigation ditch which conducts 



IBERIAN PENINSULA PORTUGAL 103 

the water through the land. On each side, here and 
there, lateral branches tap the main stream : find 
one of these openings directly behind the feet of the 
man holding the sluice gate. What effect do these 
ditches have upon the fertility of the soil, and why is 
irrigation necessary? What familiar fruit is grow- 
ing beside the ditch? What other crops are to be 
expected ? 

Recall the location of Bussaco, in Portugal. Our 
next Position will be there. 

Position 6. Carmelite convent and woods, declared 
by papal bull a "sacred forest", Bussaco, Portugal 

Approach the edge of this precipice cautiously and 
look down (point the instrument towards the floor) 
into the valley below. Describe the sensation which 
you feel. 

What do you observe concerning the number of 
trees and the extent of the wooded land? Do the 
trees seem to be of a kind common to the temperate 
zone, or to tropical conditions? What inference 
are you justified in making about the amount of rain- 
fall here and the temperature? 

Describe the kind of country: that is, the degree 
of slope and general eveness or unevenness of the 
land. W T hat makes this situation a very desirable 
one for a convent? 

Summary. Compare the southeastern part of 
Spain as seen near Almeria with the region around 
Bussaco in regard to conditions of rainfall. Describe 
the difference in the character of the trees at Bus- 
saco and Elche. Explain the presence of the luxuri- 
ant vegetation at Elche and the almost barren region 



104 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

at Almeria. What did you infer from the standpoint 
at Burgos in regard to conditions of moisture there ? 
To what extent are the other portions of the central 
plateau like Burgos in this respect? What do you 
infer about the amount of rainfall near Granada? 
Sum up briefly what you have learned from these 
standpoints about the distribution of moisture in the 
Iberian plateau. 

Be able to point out upon the map all the Positions 
from which some idea of the physiographic features 
is obtained, and describe each. Compare the den- 
sity of population in different parts and account for 
differences. 

Backward Customs 

Introduction. Four Positions provide fav- 
orable opportunities for observing the out-of-date 
and time-consuming methods of work common in 
Spain and Portugal. Find them upon the map. 
They are at Valencia, Cadiz, and in the Basque 
Provinces. Incidentally these standpoints afford an 
opportunity to observe surface features and climate. 

Your first Position will be taken at Valencia. 

Position 7. Ploughing a hemp-field with a primitive 
wooden plough in the province of Valencia, Spain 

Describe the way these animals are harnessed to- 
gether. What makes the pair seem somewhat 
awkward and ridiculous in appearance? What 
sort of a rude implement are they dragging? 
(How does it differ in construction and effective- 
ness from the modern tools used in the United 



IBERIAN PENINSULA CUSTOMS 105 

States?) Note the wooden mallet and heavy mat- 
tock. For what purpose is the mallet used? Why 
is that short-handled hoe not as convenient and easy 
to use as our common hoe? What impression do 
you get from this outfit concerning the attitude of 
the Spanish people towards improved farm machin- 
ery? 

Find pictures in your text books and in railway pamphlets 
of the most improved kinds of farm tools and machinery. 
Trade circulars are also full of illustrations. (See also pp. 
312, 313, 315.) 

What is the character of the surface of the land upon which 
you are standing? Knowing the .location of Valencia what 
do you infer concerning the way this land has been formed? 
What kind of surface features loom up dimly upon the horizon 
at the extreme right? Look at a good map showing physical 
features, for a better appreciation of the situation of Valencia 
and of the surrounding country. 

The next standpoint is to be at Cadiz. In what 
part of Spain is it? 

Position 8. How a patient mule pumps water to irri- 
gate thirsty fields near Cadiz, Spain 

What is this rude machine ? Find the two wheels 
at right angles to each other, with long clumsy 
teeth set in their rims. What is attached to the sec- 
ondary rim of the upright or vertical wheel ? At the 
very center of your field of vision within the space 
enclosed by the secondary rim of the upright wheel, 
find the water pouring into the trough below ; where 
does it come from? Describe the working of the 
machine and the part which the mule plays. Is the 
wheel in good repair — with every bucket in place? 
What does this suggest about Spanish character? 



106 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

What form of vegetation do you see in the foreground? 
To what kind of a climate is it peculiar? What does the 
dense foliage of the background lead you to infer has been 
supplied to the soil there? At the extreme right of your line 
of vision what do you see above the tree tops that indicates 
modern methods of raising water? 

Position g. Old-fashioned ox-team used in the work 
of fertilizing a farmer's field; Arteaga, Spain 

What is your general impression concerning the attractive- 
ness of the scenery here? Of the fertility of the soil? What 
do you judge concerning the abundance of rainfall? Why? 
Compare with other parts of Spain and Portugal already vis- 
ited. 

Describe the kind of farm wagon used here; note 
the way the body of the cart is made and the pe- 
culiar construction of the wheels. What do you 
notice about the width of tire? (Is a broad or 
narrow tire better for loaded vehicles drawn over 
ploughed ground? Why?) Describe the team har- 
nessed to the wagon. How is the farmer removing 
the load? (What quicker way do we provide for 
unloading vehicles of this type?) How does the 
blade of the hoe used by that man at the left differ 
in shape from ours? In weight? The uneven tile 
roof of the barn harmonizes with the rude, old- 
fashioned vehicle and tools. 

In what part of the Iberian Peninsula are the 
Basque Provinces? Our next Position is tO;be there. 

Position 10. Harvesting wheat in the Basque pro- 
vince of Guipuzcoa, northern Spain 

With what sort of an instrument are these peas- 
ants cutting the wheat? What position of the 
body makes the labor very tiresome? What do the 
workmen do with the stalks after cutting them? 



IBERIAN PENINSULA CUSTOMS 107 

Who follow the reapers? What do you learn from 

this scene about methods of farm work in the north 

of the peninsula? 

How does the up-to-date way of harvesting in 

America differ from these methods in the demands 

made upon the strength of the laborers? In the 

amount of work accomplished within a given time ? 

What must be true concerning the number of workmen re- 
quired in each case to harvest a given amount of wheat in the 
same time? When cost of labor is taken into account, is it 
cheaper or dearer to harvest wheat in America by hand, or by- 
machinery? What do you infer about the price paid to work- 
men in countries like the Basque Provinces? 

What is the character of the surface features 
seen from this standpoint? 

Summary. Name and describe the tools and con- 
trivances of primitive construction, common 
among the Iberian people. Compare their ways 
of ploughing, irrigating, and harvesting • with the 
methods employed in other countries of Europe and 
in the United States. How do you explain the 
backwardness of these people in adopting up-to-date 
methods ? 

Describe and compare the surface features and 
climatic conditions observed from different stand- 
points. 

Describe home buildings seen from preceding Po- 
sitions. (Positions 3, 9, 10.) What materials are 
used in construction? Why? 



108 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 

Cities 

Position lR. Puerta del Sol, the heart of Spain's 
capital city (east) Madrid 

Position 2R. The impocing Royal Palace and park 
from N.W., Madrid, Spain 

Position 3R. The gorgeously decorated throne room, 
royal palace, Madrid, Spain 

Position 4R. Barcelona's most popular avenue, Pa- 
seo de Colon (Columbus promenade), N.N,E. 
from Columbus monument, Spain 

Position 5R, Looking down the Guadalquiver (south) 
from the bridge of Isabel II, Seville, Spain 

Position 6R. Castle of St, George and city, Lisbon, 
Portugal 

Locate upon the map Madrid, Barcelona, Seville, 
and Lisbon. What political relation do Madrid and 
Lisbon hold to their respective countries? 

Describe Position iR: the square, the methods of 
transportation of people and merchandise, the ar- 
rangement of the streets in relation to the square. 
Who lives in the Royal Palace (Position 2R) ? De- 
scribe this structure : its size, shape, general plan and 
surroundings. How would the official residence of 
the President of the United States look alongside 
this building? Step into the Throne Room (Posi- 
tion 3R). Tell about the furnishings, decorations 
and the place where the King receives. What form 
of government does Spain have? 

Study carefully Barcelona (Position 4R) so that 
you can tell your classmates about the kind of land 
upon which it is located and its relation to the coun- 
try back of it. Let your description include an ac- 
count of the magnificent boulevard and its trees, 
the indications of Barcelona's commercial relations 



THE CORK INDUSTRY 109 

and industrial activity. Describe the situation of 
Seville (Position 5R), the appearance of the river, 
its width and the probable depth, and the shipping. 
What makes the location of Seville at this particular 
part of the river advantageous? Notice the old 
hulks almost concealed within the shadow of the 
wharf : what is happening to them ? What do they 
suggest concerning the enterprise of the people and 
commercial prosperity ? 

Describe Lisbon (Position 6R). 

Cork 

Position 7R. Cork oaks, partially stripped of bark, 
in a grove at Almoraima, southern Spain 

Position 8R. Boiling bark from cork oaks, prepara- 
tory to scraping and pressing 

Position gR. The cork industry — scraping the oak 
bark and pressing it Hat 

Position 10 R. Trimming the cured cork and packing 
in bales for shipment 

Position 11 R. Great stacks of cork as it comes from 
the trees, and a bale ready to ship 

Cork is obtained by stripping off the bark of the 
evergreen oak. In the southern and eastern parts 
of the Iberian peninsula there are thousands of 
acres of these trees. You will observe some from 
which the bark has recently been cut (Position 7R). 
From the other standpoints you will have an op- 
portunity to follow the cork through the different 
stages of its preparation. Study all these scenes 
carefully, looking in the encyclopaedia for explana- 
tions, and then write a little description of what 
cork is, where it comes from, how it is obtained, 
cured and packed ready for shipment. Make a list 



110 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

of things into which cork is made and tell why it 
is useful for these purposes. Start a collection of 
specimens for the school museum illustrating the use 
of cork. 



q 



FRANCE 

Introduction. Locate France in relation to the 
other countries upon the continent and to England. 
Under the direction of your teacher find out from a 
map showing physical features the character of the 
greater portion of the surface of France. Locate 
and describe exceptions to the general statement. 
Discuss the effect of the position of the highlands 
and mountain ranges upon the climate of France 
and upon the usefulness to the people of different 
portions of the country. Name and locate the nat- 
ural features which form the boundaries of France 
and review briefly the influence of these features 
upon the development of the nation. 

Make a simple sketch map of France. Indicate upon it in 
the usual way the situation of the mountain ranges which 
form the boundary lines and show by intensity of shading 
the elevation of the land. Draw arrows to show direction 
of prevailing winds. 

Locate Carhaix about eighty miles east of Brest, 
in the interior of Brittany; Gavarnie, near the 
Spanish frontier almost due south from Bordeaux, 
and the champagne district just south of Rheims. 

Relief and Its Effects 
You are now to take your stand near Carhaix. 

Position i. Autumn in Brittany— peasants thresh- 
ing grain near Carhaix 

What general impression do you get from this 

scene concerning the activity of the people before 



112 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

you? What do you notice about the sex of the 
laborers? About their ages? What do you infer 
from these observations concerning the customs of 
the French peasants at harvest time? 

Notice these people more carefully. What articles of dress 
worn by the women are common to the peasant class? From 
their faces and general appearance would you be able to 
recognize these people as foreigners? Give reasons. Make 
comparisons as to features and dress between these French 
peasants and the immigrant laborers seen in America. 

Before we proceed to inspect the methods of work 
employed by these peasants let us take a good look 
at the country. What is the general character of 
the surface ? Observe the appearance of the skyline 
and infer how far land like this extends. Describe 
the relative amount of wooded land and open coun- 
try. Find the little brook at the farther edge of 
the field in which we stand and note how the line 
of bushes marks its path. From the general ap- 
pearance of the landscape would you infer the 
amount of rainfall to be abundant or scanty? Ex- 
plain. (How does your inference compare with the 
facts as shown by a rainfall map?) 

Study the way in which the grain is being 
threshed. In the foreground two women and a boy 
are using a hand machine. From the appearance of 
things it seems that the straw which has already 
passed through the other thresher is again threshed 
to remove every stray kernel of grain. (What do 
you learn from this concerning the habits of thrift 
and economy of the peasants? Of the cost of labor 
in order that this custom shall be worth while?) 
Observe the hopper on top into which the loose and 



NORTHERN FRANCE 113 

broken stalks of wheat from the pile near at hand 
are put. After being threshed the straw comes out 
at the bottom. What part of the work is each of 
.the people near the machine doing? 

What furnishes the motive power for the other 
threshing machine? Just beyond and to the left of 
the most distant woman find the shaft or spindle 
that connects this machine with the source of power. 
Notice the large bundle of wheat about to be thrown 
into the thresher. 

Find the man with a hoe in the open space between the 
two machines. What is he doing? What is that pile of 
material at his side? Notice also the woman with a piece of 
brush sweeping up the ground. 

How does this method of threshing grain differ 
from that practiced in the wheat fields of North 
America? What does this comparison lead you to 
infer concerning the difference in the size of the 
farms in France and in America? Does the ap- 
pearance of the landscape verify your conclusions? 
How must the cost of labor in France differ from 
that in the United States? Why? What effect do 
these things have upon the introduction of labor 
saving farm machinery? 

At your leisure other standpoints may be taken at Crecy, 
Agincourt and Balinghem. Find these places on a good atlas 
and locate them upon your own sketch map. From these 
standpoints the character of the surface in northern and 
northeastern France may be further observed. 

Position xa. Battleground of 1346 (S. W.) from English 

king's position, Crecy en-Ponthieu 
Position ib. Pastoral life today on battlefield of French and 

English, Agincourt 
Position ic. "Field of the Cloth of Gold, 9 ' where kings met 

(1520), Balinghem 



114 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Compare the openness of the country as seen from these 
Positions with that shown in Position i. Observe the effect 
of this condition upon the size of the fields and farms. What 
method of storing the hay and straw seems to be common 
in this part of France? How do the farmers in our country 
usually store their fodder crops for winter use? Do you 
see any barns in these scenes? Any large farmhouses? In 
France and in some other parts of Europe the farm laborers 
live in villages and go out from them to their labor. Some- 
times the fields in which they work are two or three miles 
away. 

What historical facts are associated with Crecy and with 
Agincourt? (See encyclopedia.) Why is land of this kind 
favorable for the manipulation of large armies? 

In the next Position upon the road to Gavarnie 
you are to look south toward the Pyrenees moun- 
tains. Find this section of France upon the map. 
Position 2. Glacier-covered heights of the Pyre- 
nees, S. from road to Gavarnie 

What is the character of the scenery in this part 
of France? What reasons have you for supposing 
that the brawling stream below takes its rise among 
the far distant hills? Describe in some detail the 
form, character of surface and altitude of the Pyre- 
nees as seen from this point of view. Why have 
these mountains always proved to be a very effec- 
tive barrier between France and Spain? (To what 
extent has this influenced the commercial relations 
between the two countries? The development of 
civilization in Spain? Explain the meaning of the 
French proverb — "Africa begins at the Pyrenees.") 
Of what importance are river valleys in a land of 
great inequality of surface features in determining 
the location of roads and railways? Why? What 
illustration of this fact does the present scene sup- 
ply? Consider the usefulness of land like this for 



THE RIVIERA AND EASTERN FRANCE 115 

farming purposes; for grazing; for timber land. 
What effect will this have upon the density of pop- 
ulation in this part of France? 

Upon the completion of your regular task ask permis- 
sion to study the following Position. It is near Mentone 
among the mountains which border the Mediterranean and 
separate France and Italy. Find the location upon a map. 

Position 2A. In the picturesque Borrigo Valley. Alps Mari- 
times 

How do the two areas compare in relief? Note how the 
vegetation here differs from that seen in Position 2. Be able 
to state this difference clearly and fully. Note how the two 
localities compare in latitude and ask your teacher to explain 
to you and your classmates the reason for this very apparent 
variation in climate. 

France is the greatest wine producing country. 
One of the famous kinds of wine is champagne. The 
center of the champagne district is near Rheims, 
about a hundred miles east of Paris. Find this area 
upon the map. You are now to go there. 

Position 3. Vineyards covering sunny fields at Ay 
in the champagne district 

What geographical features make this landscape 
most pleasing and attractive? Observe closely the 
vineyard directly before you. (It is now the mid- 
dle of September. In a couple of weeks it will be 
time for the vintage to begin.) How are the vines 
trained? How close together are they planted? 
How high do they grow and how large is each one ? 
(In this respect how do they compare with the grape 
vines you are accustomed to see?) Every year the 
branches are cut almost down to the ground: what 
for? What advantage is gained in respect to the 
yield of grapes per acre of cultivating many small 



116 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

plants in an upright position instead of allowing 
the vines to spread over the ground ? Explain. 

How much of the land within the range of view 
seems to be under cultivation ? How far up the hill- 
sides do the vineyards extend? What is the effect 
upon the appearance of the slopes of the many vine- 
yards more or less regularly arranged? Where are 
the homes of the laborers who work in these vine- 
yards? This is one of the customs of the country: 
see statement concerning it in connection with Posi- 
tions i a, ib and ic. 

Let us see what these workmen are doing. What 
is this pile of material nearest you? What is there 
in the next pile? What does the wheelbarrow con- 
tain? What will the young man probably do with 
it? Why is this work necessary for successful cul- 
tivation ? 

Summary. Name and locate the different posi- 
tions taken. Describe the character of the surface 
features seen and show of what parts of France each 
is characteristic. Contrast the region of rather strong 
relief shown in Position 2 with that of north- 
ern and central France. Compare the usefulness 
of the land in each case for farming, grazing and 
other purposes. Discuss the effect of steep slopes 
upon transportation and travel and note the effect of 
the Pyrenees upon the relations of Spain and France. 

Tell some of the things, which impressed you con- 
cerning the people ; their general appearance, articles 
of dress, methods of work and the situation of their 
homes in relation to the fields. 



THE RIVIERA SOUTHEASTERN FRANCE 117 

Coastal Border and Related Industries. 

Introduction. Recall the fact that France has 
a frontage upon two great bodies of water : what are 
they? How may this affect France industrially? 
Find out from a good relief map which parts of the 
coastal border are low lands; which parts are high. 
Note, too, whether the shore line is regular or ir- 
regular and discuss the presence or absence of good 
harbors. 

Upon the southern coast locate Mentone, Mon- 
aco and Nice. By whom are these places visited and 
at what season of the year? Situated upon the 
northwestern coast, south of the island of Jersey, 
is a place called Cancale ; it is near St. Malo, one of 
the leading fishing towns of France. Upon the 
shore of the Bay of Biscay near the mouth of the 
river Loire is Le Croisic. Keep the location of these 
places in mind; you are to visit them to view por- 
tions of the coastal border and the related industries. 

You will now stand near the boundary line be- 
tween France and Italy and look westward towards 
Mentone and Monte Carlo. 

Position 4, From Grimaldi on Italian frontier west 
over Mentone (France) to distant Monte Carlo 

What is the character of the land bordering upon 
the coast? Farther inland to the right of our field 
of vision what natural features should we find? 
What body of water is this? 

Note the situation of Mentone. What configura- 
tion of the shore line helped to determine its loca- 
tion? By what artificial means has man attempted 



118 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

to increase this advantage? From the size and ap- 
pearance of the harbor what do you infer concerning 
the commercial importance of Mentone? Why does 
it not look like a manufacturing town? For what 
is it noted ? 

Draw a simple diagram sketch of the shore line showing 
the location of Mentone and the position of the artificial fea- 
ture. Explain the necessity and advantage of the break- 
water; describe its construction, note the location of the 
lighthouse and comment upon the number and character of 
the craft within the harbor. 

Where are most of the buildings outside of Men- 
tone located in relation to the coast line? Why? 
Do the principal streets run parallel to or at right 
angles with the shore? Give reasons for this ar- 
rangement. Find the railway line in the foreground 
and at the extreme right of our field of vision; 
its nearer portion is spanned by a stone bridge sup- 
ported by arches. Does the railway run coastwise 
or landwards (confirm your inference by an inspec- 
tion of the railway map) ? What effect will the 
general direction of lines of travel in relation to the 
coast have upon the communication of the inhabi- 
tants of Mentone with people inland and along the 
shore ? In what ways do mountains bordering upon 
the coastline affect the lives of the people? 

Other places showing the character of the coastline in south- 
eastern France may be visited at your leisure from the fol- 
lowing standpoints. 

Position 4a. Monte Carlo's capital, Monaco— smallest prin- 
cipality on earth 
Position 4b. The port of Nice, from the chateau 
Position 4c. The French squadron in the harbor of 
Villefranche 



THE RIVIERA SOUTHEASTERN FRANCE 119 

Monaco was seen in the distance from Position 4. In 4a 
you are looking back towards Mentone. Read the descriptive 
text upon the back of the mount. (Monaco is not politically 
a part of France, but independent). Study the situation of 
Nice, note the plan and construction of the artificial harbor 
and describe the kinds of craft seen entering it and at shelter 
there. Describe the harbor of Villef ranche and its important 
occupants. 

You will now stand on the northern coast at Can- 
cale. 

Position 5. Acres of oyster beds at Cancale, and 
outlook N. M. over bay 

What marks the position of the oyster beds ? How 
does the land upon which they are located compare 
in height with the level of the water? With the 
land upon which you are standing? What is the 
stage of the tide at present (notice small boats off- 
shore) ? What will happen to the oyster beds later? 
Oysters live upon the surface of the bottom. Un- 
like the salt water clam which lies concealed in the 
mud and sand, they are exposed by the fall of the 
tide. Why, then, are some of these beds kept cov- 
ered by water? 

Notice the oyster gatherer and her son. What 
are those rough baskets for? Find other gatherers 
at work upon the flats below. Observe the accumu- 
lation of shells just over the edge of the embank- 
ment. What does this mean concerning the way 
oysters are shipped? (From the position of the 
boats yonder and from the appearance of the land 
now uncovered by the water what do you infer 
concerning the slope of the ocean bottom off-shore ? 
What are likely to be the altitude and slope of the 
land behind the shore? Verify your conclusion by 



120 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

a glance at the map showing physical features). 
What effect will the gradually sloping ocean bottom 
and a moderate rise and fall of the tide have upon 
the suitability of the shore for the present industry? 
How will the hours during which the oyster gath- 
erer may work be affected by these conditions ? 

Compare the French method of obtaining oysters with that 
practiced in Chesapeake Bay and Long Island Sound. What 
proportion of the world's supply of oysters does the United 
States furnish? 

In the next position you will take your stand 
among the salt fields near the town of Le Croisic. 
Recall the location of this standpoint upon the map. 

Position 6. Vast salt Gelds with children collecting 
salt for the stacks, Z,e Croisic 

Notice the large rectangular shaped depression 
lying directly in front of you. Into what is it di- 
vided? By what means? Not far away find an- 
other basin similar to this one. Try to count the 
glittering white piles of salt. Each of the larger 
piles marks the presence of one of these basins. 
What do you learn from this concerning the ex- 
tensiveness of the salt fields near Le Croisic? 

You are looking south. The sea is in front and 
to the right. Notice the group of houses in the dis- 
tance. How does the height of the land there com- 
pare with that in which the salt marshes are sit- 
uated? How does this whole area compare" in alti- 
tude with the level of the ocean? 

Describe the process of obtaining salt. Where 
does the supply of water in these basins come from ? 
Think what is always taking place where water is 
exposed to the wind and sun. Is the water in these 



BAY OF BISCAY SALT FIELDS 121 

rectangular places deep or shallow? How does the 
one nearest you differ in appearance from the others ? 
What has taken place? For what purpose will this 
man use that long flat scoop? What part of the 
work are the women and children doing? 

To be adapted for the evaporation of salt from 
sea water what must be the character of the land 
bordering upon the ocean ? What must be true con- 
cerning the amount of rainfall? Concerning the 
number of warm, sunshiny days? Le Croisic is a 
fishing village; of what importance may this be to 
the salt industry? Sum up the things, physiographic, 
climatic and industrial, which determine the impor* 
tance of this industry in this place. 

Make comparisons between this scene and the one entitled 
"Overlooking the extensive salt fields of Solinen, Russia," 
(p. 200.) Find out how salt is obtained in other parts of the 
world, particularly in the United States. What are the prin- 
cipal uses of salt? 

France holds an important place among the coun- 
tries of the world in the fishing industry. Le Croisic 
is one of the ports which sends out a fleet of boats. 
You will now go there. 

Position 7. Town and harbor showing Ashing fleet 
at anchor, I<e Croisic 

What impression do you get concerning the num- 
ber of boats and their position with relation to one 
another? What a confusion of masts and rigging! 
Notice this boat just coming into the dock and the 
men in the other craft busily engaged in various 
kinds of work. What a fascinating scene this is! 

Describe the fishing boats. Are they large or 
small? Decked over or open? Are they intended 



122 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

for long voyages or short trips? How are they 
propelled? Do you think they are trimly built and 
swift, or cumbersome and slow ? Are their fares in- 
tended as fresh fish for market or for canning and 
preserving ? Are the fish caught by handlines, trawls 
or with seines? 

From the appearance of the distant buildings what do you 
infer in regard to the character and prosperity of Le Croisic? 
Notice the materials and construction used in making the 
pier or breakwater at the extreme left of our field of vision. 
What impression does this give you concerning the import- 
ance of this port? 

At Etretat (Position 7a), 3'ou will find another opportunity 
to become acquainted with French fishermen and their cus- 
toms. At the proper time ask permission to take this stand- 
point. 

Position 7 a. Home at last! Hauling a fishing-boat up on 
the beach below din's at Etretat 

Note what the people are doing, the way it is being done 
and explain why this is necessary here and was not at Le 
Croisic. How do the boats compare in size and rigging 
with those at Le Croisic? What implements of the fisherman's 
trade do you see upon the beach? 

The headland is worthy of your attention. Describe the 
character of its sides, the structure of the mass, that is, the 
way the material is arranged, the picturesque way in which 
the waves have worn it away, and the building which crowns 
its highest point. 

Summary. Review the location of the places seen 
from this series of Positions. Contrast the ap- 
pearance of the coastal border near Mentone and 
Nice with that near Le Croisic and Cancale. By 
reference to a map showing the physical features in- 
fer the characteristics of other parts of the shore 
line and make comparisons with the portions you 
have visited through the stereoscope. 

Describe the occupations of the coastal border in 



paris 123 



relation to the surface features and to climatic con- 
ditions. 

Paris 

Introduction. Locate Paris, mention its 
prominence in a political sense in France, and give 
its rank among the cities of the world. What geo- 
graphic conditions helped to determine the location 
of the city at this particular point upon the river? 
What reputation does Paris hold among the cities of 
the world for beauty and attractiveness? 

General View of Paris 

Five of the six Positions that follow are taken 
upon the top of the Arch of Triumph (see Library 
Reference Group, Position 9R). From this elevated 
outlook you will gaze in as many directions over 
Paris. Locate the position of the Arch of Triumph 
upon the accompanying map of Paris. Study the re- 
lations of your standpoint to the various portions of 
the city. Locate in particular the center of Paris, the 
position of the church of Notre Dame, the course of 
the Seine, Montmartre Heights, the Bois de Bou- 
logne and the Champs Elysees. Observe the arrange- 
ment of the streets at the Arch of Triumph. How 
many come together at this point? Before taking 
each Position, find upon the map the direction in 
which you are to look. In the first Position you face 
towards the southeast. Along what avenue? 

Position 8. The favorite drive, Avenue Champs 
Mlysees—from the Arch of Triumph to the Place 
de la Concorde, Paris 

What features of this avenue make it a favorite 



124 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

driveway for thousands of fashionable people? 
Towards what portion of the city are we looking? 
Find the two dark, square towers of Notre Dame in 
the distance on the right: how far beyond them in 
comparison with their distance from us did the map 
indicate that the city extends ? What impression do 
you get concerning the size of the city ? 

Describe trie length and width of this avenue and the trees, 
buildings, carriages and people. Read the printed description 
upon the back of the cardboard mount. 

You will now face northeast and look towards the 
Heights of Montmartre. Recall the location of the 
Heights upon the map. In what direction will you 
look? 

Position g. Avenue Hoche, Avenue de Friedland 
and Montmartre Heights from the top of the Arch 
of Triumph 

On which hand does the greater portion of the 
city lie? What arrangement of streets' at this point, 
shown upon the map, is suggested by these two ave- 
nues? What helps to make these streets attractive 
and refreshing ? What seems to be the character of 
the distant surface features? Describe Montmartre 
Heights. 

Upon the back of the mount read the historical account of 
the Heights. 

Your next outlook will be towards the northwest. 
See the map. 

Position 10. The Avenue of the Grand Army, looking 
northwest from the Arch of Triumph 

What feature of this roadway helps to emphasize 
its length? How far away does it seem to stretch? 



Muna.ture A 




126 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Towards what kind of surface features does it lead ? 
Where is the center of the city from this outlook? 
What famous thoroughfare extends in a directly 
opposite direction from that of the avenue of the 
Grand Army? 

About three-quarters of a mile down the avenue 
before us, on the left, is a triangular shaped wooded 
area. This is a corner of the famous Bois de Boul- 
ogne. Read about it upon the back of the mount. 

Describe the width of the avenue, the number of 
rows of trees and the arrangement of the footpaths 
and driveways. 

In the next Position you are to look west. See 
the map. 

Position ii. The Avenue Bois de Boulogne, looking 
west from the top of the Arch of Triumph 

As we now face, where is the larger part of the 
city of Paris ? How does the view in this direction 
differ from that which we should see if we turned 
directly about ? Describe what you see : the charac- 
ter of the landscape, the kind of surface features, and 
the appearance of the avenue. 

Upon the back of the mount read about that distant hill and 
the Avenue Bois de Boulogne. 

The final outlook from the Arch of Triumph is 
towards the south. You will now look in that direc- 
tion. See the map. 

Position 12, Eiffel Tower, Trocadero Palace and 
Exposition Grounds, south from the top of Arch 
of Triumph 

What do you infer concerning the conspicuousness 
of the Eiffel Tower from the different portions of 



PARIS 127 

the city of Paris? Describe briefly this important 
landmark. What suggestion do you get, from this 
standpoint, of the radiating arrangement of the 
avenues centering upon the Arch of Triumph ? Note 
the character of the distant surface features. 

Study the text upon the back of the mount for 
details of the outlook, and for statistics about the 
Eiffel Tower. 

The next Position is not far from the center of 
the city. Find it upon the map. 

Position 13. The old City Island and the Seine, 
southeast from the Louvre 

What river is this? What kind of craft do you 
see upon its surface? (Of what importance is it 
commercially?) 

Describe the bridges : whether few or many, style of con- 
struction and general appearance. 

Observe the two square towers of Notre Dame. 
This church stands in about the center of the origi- 
nal settlement of Paris. What natural feature de- 
termined the location of the town at this point? 
What evidence of this fact do you see from this 
standpoint ? 

Summary. According to the following plan 
give an account of your impressions of Paris. De- 
scribe first the situation of the Arch of Triumph in 
relation to the city as a who<le, the arrangement of 
the streets at this point, the names of the principal 
avenues, and the important public buildings and other 
landmarks seen from the top of the Arch. Give your 
impressions in regard to the attractiveness of the 
street along which you looked and enumerate the 



128 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

things which pleased you. Include a statement of 
your appreciation of the size of the city and of the 
way you began to realize it. Describe the kind of 
country in the midst of which Paris is located. 

What American city has its streets similarly arranged? 
Could your home city be made more convenient for traffic, or 
more beautiful, by cutting new streets arranged like the main 
avenues of Paris? Where should parkways be planned for 
your city? 

Give an account of your visit to the center of the 
city, the river Seine, the kind of boats you saw, the 
importance of the river to commerce, the number 
and style of the bridges, the appearance of the river's 
banks, and the situation of Notre Dame. 



LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 

The Public Buildings, Monuments and 
Works of Art in Paris 

From the following Positions you will view some 
of the most important buildings, monuments and 
works of art in Paris. Note the Positions on the 
map of Paris. 

Position i R. The Hotel de Ville (City Hall), and 
D' Areola Bridge 

Position 2R. Chamber of Deputies— from the Place 
de la Concorde Bridge 

Position 3R. Interior of the Chamber of Deputies 

Position 4R. The old historic Cathedral, Notre Dame 

Position 5R. The Church of the MadelSine 

Position 6R. Dome des Invalides, where rests the 
mighty warrior — Tomb of Napoleon 

Position ?R. Sarcophagus containing the remains of 
the mighty warrior 

Position 8R. The Vendome Column, covered with 
bronze made of Russian and Austrian cannon 



PARIS 129 

Position gR. Arch of Triumph— built 1806-36 to 
commemorate the victories of Napoleon 

Position 10R. Venus de Milo, Z,ouvre 

Position 11R. The Winged Victory, a most famous 
statue, I^ouvre 

Position 12R. One of the I^ouvre's richest gems, — 
a Madonna by Raphael 

Study each standpoint carefully. Take plenty of 
time to become thoroughly acquainted with each Po- 
sition so that you can recall the appearance and name 
of all the places of interest. Note the surroundings 
of each public building and learn what you can of 
the street life in Paris. 

Find in an encyclopaedia under the title, Paris, 
something about the Hotel de Ville (City Hall), the 
Arch of Triumph, the church of the Madeleine and 
the Column Vendome. Look up the description 
in Carpenter's Geographical Reader, Europe, on 
page 123 of a visit to the Chamber of Deputies and 
of the customs of its members. To what branch of 
our government is the Chamber of Deputies similar ? 
On page 121, in the same book, you will find an 
account of the Hotel des Invalides and of the Tomb 
of Napoleon. Upon the back of the card upon which 
Position 4R is mounted, read the description of 
Notre Dame. Find out what you can about the art 
treasures of the Louvre, the Winged Victory, Venus 
de Milo, and the Madonna by Raphael. 

Write a description of your impressions of Paris 
as you would if you were telling some friend at 
home of a day's outing in this most beautiful of 
cities. 



130 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 
FRENCH CATHEDRALS. 

Position Z3R. Rouen Cathedral and the old town, 
east from Clock Tower 

Position 14R. West front of the superb old Cathe- 
dral, a marvel of Gothic art, Rheims 

Position 15R. Cathedral interior— from choir where 
kings were crowned to west window — Rheims 

Position 16R. Amiens, east from the belfry over 
town to the famous cathedral 

Position 17R. Wonderful elaboration of the famous 
carved choir-stalls, cathedral of Amiens 

Position 18R. Chartres and its glorious cathedial, 
northwest from the bank of the Mure 

Position iqR. Bird's-eye view of Beauvais, north 
northwest to marvellous Gothic cathedral (un- 
finished) 

Position 20R. Cathedral entrance with sculptured 
Last Judgment over doorway, Bourges 

Position siR. Among the quaint memorials of 
dead-and-gone French kings, St. Denis Church 

You are now to visit some of the cathedrals of 
France. Locate the places in which the above stand- 
points are to be taken. Compare the cathedrals in 
size and in architecture with the buildings by which 
they are surrounded. Note how imposing the church 
edifice is in every case and how it is easily the cen- 
tral figure in the landscape. What does this teach 
you concerning the influence of the church at the 
time the cathedrals were built ? (What do you know 
about the recent ruptures between the French 
Government and the Roman Catholic Church?) 

What structural features common to all of the 
cathedrals are most impressive ? Describe one or two 
which appeal to you. Study the style of archi- 
tecture. Read about this point in some encyclopae- 
dia. What ornamental feature helps to make the 
exteriors beautiful? Describe the doorways at 
Bourges and at Rheims. 



FRENCH CATHEDRALS 131 

What do you learn from the interiors of the cathe- 
drals concerning the grandeur, solemnity, decora- 
tions, and general attractiveness of these places of 
worship ? For what other purpose are these churches 
sometimes used (see Position 9R.) ? 

Make out an outline of the things concerning the 
French cathedrals which interested you and which 
you think your classmates or people at home would 
like to hear about. Be ready to talk about these 
things when you get the opportunity to do so. 



HOLLAND AND BELGIUM 
HOLLAND 

The Rhine Delta 

Introduction. What is a delta ? Describe small 
ones you have seen. How were they made? Tell 
the story of the Mississippi delta. What kind of soil 
composes it ? What is a levee ? 

Draw a map of the Rhine. Briefly describe its 
valley in Switzerland. In Germany. (Pp. 152 and 
170.) Draw a map of the distributaries of the Rhine 
delta in Holland. Why does the river have several 
mouths? Why are the banks of the delta streams 
somewhat higher than the marshes and mudflats be- 
hind them ? What must be the effects of river floods 
upon the Rhine delta lands? What the effect of 
high tides? How can these lands be made safe 
homes and fitted for culture or pasture? We shall 
visit Holland to see what has been done. 

Refer to the best map of Europe you have. Study 
Holland therewith: its position, size, surface, and 
coast-line. Notice the Zuider Zee especially. What 
important city on its shore? 

Dikes and Polders 

We are now to go to an island a few miles north- 
east of Amsterdam. There we shall look over the 
harbor face of a dike and the sheltered meadows 
behind it to a fishing village. 



DIKES AND POLDERS OF HOLLAND 133 

Position t. Quaint costumes of village girls on the 
wharf beside the Ashing boats, Marken, Zuider 
Zee, Holland 

Here we are in Holland on the quaint little island 
of Marken. 

Why do you smile at these girls ? How does their 
dress differ from the fashions of your home ? What 
do their wooden shoes suggest as to climate? Why 
should warm clothing be needful ? 

How do you suppose the children of Amsterdam merchants 
dress? What natural features separate Marken from the 
sweep of world life and its fashions? Of what people that 
you have studied do those children remind you? 

How would you know these were fishing boats? How rec- 
ognize again one that sailed from a Holland port? To what 
fishing grounds do you think they sail? How important an 
occupation do you judge fishing to be at Marken? 

Notice the dike beyond the boats, a continuation 
of the one where you stand. And the level top of a 
distant dike. How do they compare in height with 
the meadows between? With the water? Why 
build them so high? What does the great haystack 
tell you about the meadows? Why give the upper 
dike a sloping face? How is the slope protected 
from rain washing? 

Do you think early peoples along the Zuider Zee followed 
fishing or farming for a livelihood? Why? 

On one of the broad, low islands in the delta of 
the Rhine and Meuse is Dordrecht. You can find 
it on a good atlas map. You are to stand on a dike 
near the city and look northward to its outskirts. 
To your right will be the polder meadows (see dic- 
tionary), to your left the railway from Antwerp to 
Rotterdam. 



134 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 2. Industrious peasants and milk- carts 
passing a wind -mill on a dyke road west of 
JDordrecht, Holland 

What is this tower with its four long arms or 
sails? It performs a most important work. The 
polder to your right is below river level, and sur- 
rounded by dikes like the one on which we stand: 
then what will tend to happen to the meadows when 
rain falls? Broad ditches like that to your right, 
with smaller trenches flowing into them lead along 
to windmills like this one. When the wind blows 
and the arms turn, what work do you suppose is 
accomplished? Next the railway on your left is a 
canal: what do you think it does with the water 
pumped into it? 

What uses have the dikes besides damming the 
waters back — as seen before you? What qualities 
must the people of Holland possess to enable them 
to build dikes like this miles in length? 

What is the most novel feature of this group in 
the street? (Why should farmers in Holland use 
dog-carts when American farmers do not? Con- 
sider the density of population, size of farms, and 
the character of the road before you.) What char- 
acteristic of the Dutch people is typified by the 
woman at the right? Why should the products 
borne in the dog-cart and in the distant wagon be 
produced abundantly in Holland? 

Notice the mill yard and hedge, the roadside and dike slope : 
what characteristics of the Dutch do you infer? 

Is the higher land about you or beyond you? Then — think 
carefully — are you looking toward or from a distributary of 
the delta? What would you expect to see on the other side 
of Dordrecht? Rotterdam is similarly placed, a dozen miles 



DIKES AND POLDERS OF HOLLAND 135 

northwest of you. What American city on the Mississippi has 
like advantages of position? 

You have stood on the dikes; now you are to 
take a position far back on the meadows that lie be- 
tween the Zuider Zee and the North Sea. You will 
be below high tide level and on land that was once 
barren mudflats. 

Position 3. Miles on miles of peaceful pastures 
where wind-mills beckon to one another (north 
of Amsterdam). 

Why can you see so far ? What limits the extent 
of your vision? Compare the sky line with that 
about your home? And the view with one across 
the Red River valley in Canada (p. 312). Why are 
these lands about you so level ? 

What kinds of domestic animals graze here? 
Look far away: how many can you see? Find the 
clover blossoms. Compare the herbage with that of 
pastures in your vicinity. What conditions of sur- 
face, soil and climate favor grazing here? What 
products for use and export should the land afford? 
On other polders are fields of vegetables, tulip bulbs, 
flax and other crops. 

Where must the water in the ditches that divide 
the fields finally flow? Why are the many wind- 
mills that mark the horizon needed here? Upon 
what are they built? Notice that there are two 
rows of windmills: what must be between them? 
Now you are ready to tell the story of how Holland 
has prepared the former mudflats for culture. 

Supplementary Work. Why are not the 
marshes of the Mississippi delta or those of the At- 
lantic coast of the United States treated like these of 



136 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

the Rhine delta ? How can the Dutch afford to build 
such dikes, canals, and windmills? Compare their 
work with the dams, canals and power plants that 
our national government is building in the arid 
West. 

Design a postal card that shall include the typi- 
cal features of a Holland dike and its surroundings. 
Write the story of the life and work of an old 
Dutch windmill; imagine yourself to be the mill. 
Read the stories of Hans Brinker and the Silver 
Skates, and of Jan of the Windmill. 

Were an enemy to march an army against Am- 
sterdam, how could the Dutch prevent its crossing 
the polders? Read Brave Little Holland, by W. 
E. Griffis. 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 

Amsterdam and Rotterdam 

You are now to take six Positions in the midst of 
the busy life of the two great seaports of Holland. 
Find the location of the first four Positions on the 
accompanying map of Amsterdam. 

Position iR. Amsterdam looking S. E. from the 
Zuider Kerk, over shady streets and glassy- 
canals 

Position sR. Prom Zuider Kerk, N. W. over Mar- 
ket, Weigh House, canal and St. Nicholas Kerk 
to suburbs, Amsterdam 

Position 3R. booking N. up a tree-lined canal to 
the old Weigh House, Zuider Kerk at night, 
Amsterdam 

Position 4R. Market day bargainers in the Nieuwe 
Market — north to mediaeval Weigh House, Am- 
sterdam 

Position 5R. Mast across the Oudehaven with its 
shipping, its handsome bridges and roomy 
quays, Rotterdam 



DUTCH CITIES 



137 



Position 6R. The busy Z,euvehaven and its bridge 
to the Boompje—N. to the Fish Market and 
Groote Kerk, Rotterdam 




What evidences of commercial activity do you 
note? How are barrels and bales of East India 
goods brought to the warehouses ? What means of 
propelling boats and lighters? How do you think 



138 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

goods are raised to upper stories of older stores? 
(Position iR.) What means of transporting in> 
ports inland? (Position 5R.) What impression 
as to the importance and prosperity of Holland do 
you gain from its great ports ? 

Find the location of these two ports on the map. 
Where are they situated with relation to the Rhine? 
And to the centers of population and industry of 
Central Europe? And with relation to the ocean 
and its commerce? And to England? What ad- 
vantages of position, then, have the Dutch im- 
proved ? 

Describe the country about Amsterdam. (Po- 
sitions iR and 2R.) Why would you expect to find 
few suburban towns? How high are the streets 
above water level? Recall your field study outside 
these cities (p. 135), and state the. disadvantages of 
site overcome to realize the advantages of position. 

Prepare to tell your classmates about the cities: 
describe their canals, bridges, canal-boats, and ship- 
ping; tell about their buildings, streets and street 
markets. Compare the market in Amsterdam with 
the markets of Ireland you have studied. Compare 
these seaports with Venice. With Stockholm. With 
New York. 

Villages of Holland ^ 

You are now to visit three villages of the low- 
lands, and one on the dunes beside the North Sea 
near The Hague. 

Position 7R. Everyday bnsiness on the narrow 
waterway of a little Dutch town — Volendam 



DUTCH VILLAGES 139 

Position 8R. Huge wind-mills beside the canal at 
Zaandyk — view west along the rear of the village 
street 

Position gR. Picturesque and thrifty country wom- 
en with milk-pails balanced on wooden yokes- 
Goes 

Position 10R. Cozy homes of Dutch herring fisher- 
men — and the wives they leave behind them — 
Scheveningen 

Where are the villages placed with relation to 
canals and windmills? Are these villages on the 
dikes, or out on the polders? What advantages in 
this location? Why are they so small and crowded 
together? The canals conduct away to river or sea 
the water pumped up from the polder ditches. Of 
what use are the canals to the villagers ? How deep 
are they? (Position 7R.) What occupations have 
the villagers? Prepare to describe to your class- 
mates the village houses with their yards and sur- 
roundings. Why should bricks for walls and tiles for 
roofs be used on these flats reclaimed from the sea? 
How do the canals help to make lumber less dear? 
Describe the costumes of the people. Do the people 
of the different sections of the United States have 
similar peculiarities of dress? Beyond the cottages 
of Scheveningen are tall buildings that suggest the 
seaside resort that now surrounds this village of the 
dunes. 



BELGIUM 

Cities of Belgium 

Find the location of Antwerp, Brussels and 
Bruges, and trace the course of the Meuse through 
the highlands of southern Belgium, that you may 
better appreciate what you see from the six follow- 
ing standpoints. 

Position iR. North along the river Scheldt, where 
shipping once made Antwerp Europe's richest 
commercial port. 

Position 2R. Mast from Quay Van Dyck along 
busy street to the stately Cathedral, Antwerp 

Position 3R. Interior of the Cathedral, one of the 
most famous of gothic structures, Antwerp 

Position 4R. MagnMcent Palace of Justice, south 
east from Notre Dame de la Chapelle, Brussels 

Position 5R, "In the market-place of Bruges 
stands the belfry old and brown.''— View north- 
west across canal 

Position 6R. Dinant, clustered at the foot of the 
fort-crowned cliffs beside the Meuse (southeast) 

Give an account of the harbor of Antwerp; its 

shipping, quays, facilities for landing passengers and 

freight. Compare the cathedral with others you 

have seen. What impression do you get of Brussels 

from your view over the city ? Read Longfellow's 

poem, "The Belfry of Bruges." Why should the 

canal in Bruges be typical of Belgium? Which of 

these scenes present distinctly modern life? Which 

recall mediaeval days? Dinant and its environs are 

typical of the surface of southern Belgium, and the 

location of towns there. Where else have you seen 

similar conditions? Describe the scene so as to 

show that you have profited by previous studies. 

For flax industry, see page 307 



THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA 

Introduction. Locate the Scandinavian Penin- 
sula upon a sketch map of Europe. What is the 
character of the western coastline? Name the 
bodies of water by which it is almost surrounded and 
state its relation in position to the countries of 
Europe and to ourselves. Compare the surface of 
Norway and Sweden (see map of physical features). 
How will the rivers of Norway differ from those of 
Sweden in length and rate of flow ? 

Surface Features 

(a) You are now to make a flying visit to Nor- 
way and Sweden. From four Positions you will 
view some of the most common types of surface 
features. Your first Position is in the southwestern 
part of Norway, about twenty miles southeast of 
Odde. Find the location as nearly as you can upon 
a map. 

Position i. A farmer's family making hay in field 
between mountains, R'dldal, (N. M») f Norway 

Surface of Norway. In the midst of what kind 
of a country is this hay field situated? Describe the 
land form seen in the distance. What adjective de- 
scribes the degree of slope of most of the land you 
see? What grows upon different portions of these 
slopes? Why are the sides of the mountain not 
used for hay fields ? Or for field crops ? What ef- 
fect do slopes like those common in this landscape 



142 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

have upon travel and upon transportation of com- 
modities ? This region is quite like the rest of Nor- 
way: describe briefly therefore the surface of Nor- 
way. What do you think about the probability 
of Norway ever supporting a dense population? 
Give reasons. 

How do the Norwegians stack their hay? One reason 
why this is done is so that the slanting rays of the sun in 
these far northern latitudes can be utilized to the best advan- 
tage in curing the grass. This plan also allows the wind to 
dry it. Another reason is that it rains so often in south- 
western Norway that the hay would spoil on the ground. 
Contrast this scene with haymaking in America ; the kind of 
land, the tools and people at work. Account for differences. 

(b) Your next Position is in Sweden at a place 
near the southern extremity of Lake Wettern. Lo- 
cate your Position upon a map. Compare the latitude 
with your own and with other places in Europe. 
How does it compare in latitude with Alaska? 

Position 2. Planting time on a farm in the beauti- 
ful country near Jonk'dping, Sweden 

Surface of Sweden. After glancing for a 
moment at these hardworking people look beyond 
them and note the general appearance of the coun- 
try. What kind of slopes seem to predominate in 
the foreground and middle distance? What does 
the appearance of the skyline indicate about the ex- 
tension of this kind of land? How does the scene 
before us compare with the more settled portions 
of the United States? The eastern and southern 
parts of Sweden are like this scene : find these sec- 
tions upon the map and be ready to give a brief 
description of them. 



HAYING IN NORWAY 143 

What productions would be grown in these northern lati- 
tudes? What effect would the long days of summer sun- 
shine have upon the ripening of the crops? What modern 
means of transportation is easily provided in this open 
country? Compare this planting scene with one in the 
United States, noting the workers, their clothing, tools, etc. 
How do the shadows and land slopes suggest that you are 
looking westward? Note the cumulus clouds advancing 
from the west just as they do in America. 

(c) Next you stand upon the bank of one of the 
rivers which are common in Norway and in the 
adjoining parts of Sweden. This part of Jemtland is 
almost as far north as Trondhjem between 
the coast line of Sweden and the boundary of Nor- 
way. Locate your standpoint as nearly as you can. 

Position 3. Rista Falls, Jemtland, Sweden 

Rivers of Norway and the adjoining parts of 
Sweden 

What makes this scene fascinating? How the sound of the 
distant falls deadens all other noises ! What hides the fall- 
ing water from view? 

From the movement of the water below the falls 
what do you infer about the slope of the land ? From 
the tumbled appearance of the surface what must be 
the character of the river's bed ? Are rivers like this 
suitable for boats to use ? In what way may they be 
of service to man? (What do those logs caught 
upon the cliff on the opposite side indicate about one 
use which is made of the river, of the occupation of 
some of the people and of what grows farther up the 
stream?) Describe the kind of river9 in Norway 
and in northwestern Sweden and discuss their use- 
fulness to the people. 



144 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

(d) Recall the location of Bergen. You are now 
to stand upon the heights above that city and look' 
west. 

Position 4. Bergen, west from the Floifjeld, over 
the harbor (right) and Pudde fjord (distant), Nor- 
way- 
Coastline of Norway. Upon how many sides 
does Bergen have a water front? By what 
name is this coastal form usually called? From the 
situation of Bergen and from the distant view de- 
scribe the regularity of Norway's coastline near Ber- 
gen. What kind of land borders the ocean here? 
How does the site of Bergen compare in altitude 
with the surrounding places ? What are some of the 
advantages of Bergen's location? Name the differ- 
ent kinds of craft you see in the harbor below. In 
what kinds of business are they engaged ? 

From what you have seen in this standpoint and 
from what the map shows tell what you infer about 
Norway's coastline and the character of the land 
that borders upon the sea. Why are there so few 
ports along the western coast of Norway? 

Summary. Contrast the surface of Norway 
and Sweden. Describe the coastline of Norway. 
Show how these physical features have made agri- 
culture important in Sweden and fishing and lum- 
bering the leading industries of Norway. Describe 
the rivers of the mountainous portion of the Scandi- 
navian peninsula, their usefulness at the present time, 
and their possible development in the future. 



a norwegian fiord 145 

Fiords 

Introduction. Upon a map of Norway find 
the Hardanger fiord. Follow it from the sea 
inland. How long is it approximately (see map 
scale) from the opening to the extremity of one of 
its arms ? How does it vary in width ? What enters 
the fiord at its head? Find other fiords. You are 
now to go to Odde. Find your Position upon a map. 
You will look north. 

Position 5. Odde and the Sor fiord, in the Har- 
danger country, northwest from the river bank, 
Norway 

(a) What features of this scene make it pictur- 
esque and attractive? Why would you expect the 
surface of the distant water to be so quiet and 
smooth? Describe the degree of slope of the land 
bordering upon the fiord. From the way the valley 
sides descend to the water's edge what do you infer 
about the depth of the fiord close to the shore line? 

Is the water of the fiord salt or fresh? How does its 
surface compare in level with the ocean? How do you 
explain the presence of snow at this season of the year upon 
that distant mountain of only moderate altitude above the 
sea? 

(b) Think how the people who live in the houses 
yonder spend their time and earn their living. What 
opportunity for gaining a livelihood would the 
waters of the fiord offer? The level tract of land 
surrounding the hamlet? The lower slopes of the 
hills about us ? What do you think about the prob- 
ability of their going lumbering in the winter? 

What building is most prominent among the dis- 
tant houses? What does its presence suggest about 



146 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

the habits of these folk? Do you think from the 
number of houses in sight that there are enough 
people living here to fill it? What does this fact 
lead you to infer about the position which Odde 
holds to the region round about ? By what methods 
of travel will people come to Odde? 

Give a short account of an imaginary visit to this 
hamlet telling what kind of people you met, what 
they did for a living and what you saw on Sunday 
at the church. 

(c) Study the advantages of Odde's location. 
Think first why it is easier to build houses and 
streets where they are than upon the steep sides of 
the valley. Infer also what opportunity the present 
location offers for growing vegetables and other 
crops. Consider next the importance of this valley 
behind us, through which the brook flows, in af- 
fording a gateway into the interior and mark, too, 
the easy means of communication with other settle- 
ments and with the outside world made possible by 
the waters of the fiord. 

(d) The level land upon which the hamlet is situ- 
ated is a delta plain. To understand how this plain 
was formed recall the deposits of sand and mud left 
in the street gutter or at the foot of a steep slope 
after a rainstorm : what brought this material there 
and why was it not carried further along? What 
effect does loss of motion have upon the power of 
the water to carry sand and mud ? 

Now perhaps you can describe in writing how the 
plain of Odde was formed. Note (i) its position 
in relation to the river and fiord, (2) the rate of 
the river's flow before entering the fiord, (3) re- 



NORWAY AND SWEDEN 147 

call the effect of the swiftly moving water upon the 
land over which it flows and the power of this water 
to carry sediment, then (4) infer where this river 
comes from and what it is likely to bring with it, 
and (5) what would happen where its current is 
stopped by coming into contact with the quiet waters 
of the fiord. 

Summary. Be able to recite upon the follow- 
ing topics : — 
The Fiords of Norzvay 

What they are 

Of what use they are to the people of Norway 

Why tourists visit them 
Odde as a type of Norwegian Village 

Upon what kind of a land form these villages are 
situated 

How this land was made 

Advantages and disadvantages of location 

Daily habits of the people 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUP 

Ports of Norway and Sweden 

Position iR. Stockholm, old and new, north from 
Katarina-Hissen, Royal Palace at distant left 

Position 2R. Christiania and her busy harbor, 
northwest from the Ekeberg (Royal Palace at 
right), Norway 

Position 3R. Hammerfest, the world's northern- 
most town {70 deg. N. lat.) — no sunset from 
May 13 to July 29— Norway 

Position 4R. Smoking chimneys and spacious 
wharves, Gothenburg, Sweden 

What is the capital of Sweden? Of Norway? 
Describe the location of these cities. Find upon the 



148 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

map Gothenburg and Hammerfest. Review the lo- 
cation of Bergen. What distinction does Hammer- 
fest hold? 

What is your general impression concerning the 
attractiveness of Stockholm (Position iR) ? De- 
scribe the width and general appearance of the streets 
that border upon the water. Part of the city is built 
upon islands joined together and to the mainland 
by bridges. Of what significance then is the large 
number of small boats to be seen along the water 
front ? Stockholm is called the Venice of the North : 
why? That massive flat-topped building directly in 
the distance to the left in the heart of the city is the 
palace of the king. What is his name? 

Describe the situation of Gothenburg in regard 
to the country immediately behind it and to the 
water. What kinds of craft do you see upon the 
river and at the wharves? What makes the scene 
upon the water a busy one? What evidences close 
at hand indicate that Gothenburg has excellent 
facilities for exchanging goods with the interior. 
A system of canals also connects Gothenburg with 
Stockholm. Why is the harbor of Stockholm use- 
less for about four months of the year? Gothen- 
burg does not have this disadvantage. In which of 
the two leading ports of Sweden would you prefer 
to establish a business or to buy property? Give 
reasons. 

How does Christiania seem to compare in at- 
tractiveness with Stockholm? What differences be- 
tween them do you notice along the water front? 
What is the character of the land back of Christ- 
iania? Make comparisons in this respect with the 



CITIES OF NORWAY AND SWEDEN 149 

situation of Stockholm and Gothenburg. How do 
these cities compare in size and commercial import- 
ance (see text book or gazetteer) ? 

Describe the location of Hammerfest. Can you 
explain why the houses are clustered so close to- 
gether? Recall Bergen, as seen from a former 
standpoint (p. 144), and compare the situation of 
the two places. What is the character of the coun- 
try around Hammerfest ? What do you think about 
the fertility of the soil at your feet? In what oc- 
cupation are the people of Hammerfest likely to be 
engaged? What do you infer about the conditions 
of life in Hammerfest? What strange condition of 
affairs exists here from about the middle of May 
until the end of July (see title of Position 3R.) ? 

Sum up the important and interesting facts which 
you have learned about the cities of Norway and 
Sweden. Explain why they are all located upon 
the coast. 



GERMANY 

Introduction. Draw a map of Europe and show 
Germany and the Rhine river thereon. What do 
you already know about the river ? Find Bingen on 
a map. 

Now you are to look southeast down upon the 
Rhine where it passes through the highlands about 
forty miles north of Bingen. 

Position i. Castle of Stolzenfels, above the river, 
southeast to Oberlahnstein 

Recall your map : does the river flow past you to 
left or right ? Does the plan of the harbor opposite 
agree with this answer? Do the shadows confirm 
your conclusion? 

What time of day is it? 

Where is Berlin? London? The Alps? 

Scan the distant upland. Behind you lies a simi- 
lar upland. Describe the upland's relief. What is 
the relation of the valley to the upland? Describe 
the slope of the valley sides beneath you and op- 
posite you. How wide is the valley? 

Compare its form with that of the distant valley seen on 
the upland. 

Consider the effect of the valley and river upon 
movement and traffic from east to west. North to 
south. What evidence do you find upon the river 
and its bank as to transportation lines? Where has 
population gathered? Why there? Describe and 
name the land form on which Oberlahnstein is built. 



GERMANY THE RHINE VALLEY 151 

Study of Text Book. Find in your geography 
pictures of scenes having features in common with 
that you have just studied. Explain the likeness. 
Find on a map of the eastern United States trans- 
portation routes similarly related to relief. 

Parts of the Rhine Valley 

Map Study. Examine a map that shows the 
relief of Europe. Draw a sketch map of the Rhine 
Basin and shade the highlands. What three parts 
to the Rhine valley in Germany? Where is Heidel- 
berg ? Cologne ? 

What is the character of the Rhine basin and river in 
Switzerland? What fifth physiographic division of the Rhine 
valley in Holland? 

We are now to go to Heidelberg, and shall look 
westward over the city to where the Neckar valley 
opens into that of the Rhine. 

Position 2. Heidelberg and the Neckar river, 
Germany 

(a) In what country are you? Point toward 
Switzerland. France. Survey the scene — the 
opposite valley side, the city below, the foliage about 
you: your standpoint is upon the slope of the left 
side of the valley. Now describe the form of the 
Neckar valley. 

From the shadows decide what time of day it is. 

(b) Look far out upon the Rhine valley. No- 
tice in the dim distance the level sky-line of the 
Hardt, the wooded upland that borders the broad 
floodplain. Tell about the valley — its breadth, side 
slopes, floor. 



152 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

We are now to go far down the Rhine, past Bin- 
gen, to a place about fifteen miles south of our first 
position at Oberlahnstein. 

Position 3, St. Goarshausen, and Castle Katz, 
north along the Rhine 

How can you tell that this is early afternoon? 

(a) In what direction is the North Sea? Ber- 
lin? Paris? Describe the form of the Rhine val- 
ley in this middle course. What land forms seem 
to rise about you? Notice the skyline in the dis- 
tance: recall your view across the Rhine at Ober- 
lahnstein : were you above the castle here, what 
would you find to be the character of the surface of 
the land bordering the valley? 

(b) Ages ago these highlands were very slowly 
raised by earth forces, and old river gravels 500 feet 
above the present bank of the Rhine show how shal- 
low the valley was previously. What did the river 
do as fast as the land rose? What has man done 
to the river bank? What present action of the river 
is this planned to check? 

Notice the great round tower of Castle Katz high 
above you. We are now going to the cliffs behind 
the tower, and shall look thence northwestward 
across the valley. 

Position 4. Ruin Katz and St. Goar, on the Rhine 

Toward what countries are you looking? Again 
note the form and size of the Rhine valley. Did you 
decide rightly as to the land relief back from the 
valley? How must the valley that opens to the 
Rhine bevond and behind the ruin have been made ? 



GERMANY THE RHINE VALLEY 153 

We now go down-stream sixty miles further north 
to Cologne, and look northward along the river 
front of the city. 

Position 5. Cologne and the River Rhine, showing 
the great Cathedral 

Former standpoints are far behind us. What 
country and sea are beyond us, down-stream ? What 
is the form of the land surface across which the 
Rhine here flows? What part of the Rhine valley 
is most beautiful? 

Comparisons. The Rhine from Switzerland to 
Bingen resembles the Mississippi from Cairo to the 
Gulf of Mexico in its action and in the resulting 
land forms. The Rhine has partly filled a sunken 
valley, formed by the depression of a great block 
of the earth's crust ages ago, somewhat as the 
Jordan is slowly filling the similar and deeper val- 
ley in whose lowest part is the Dead Sea ; while the 
Mississippi has filled a long bay, just as the Susque- 
hanna is at work slowly filling the head of Chesa- 
peake Bay. What forms of land and water, then, 
must characterize the Rhine above Bingen? 

What part of the Hudson valley resembles that 
of the Rhine for sixty miles below Bingen? What 
part of the Columbia river valley is similar? Gather 
pictures enabling the class to contrast the Hudson 
and Rhine valleys. Compare the valleys of the 
Rhine and the Danube with relation to their high- 
land and lowland divisions — position, extent, char- 
acter, life effects. 

The Public Library. Find chapters of books 
and articles in magazines that describe the scenery 



154 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

and cities of the Rhine. Make a card catalogue of 
the best references, for the use of classes that follow 
yours, preparing your cards like the following illus- 
tration : 

Down the Rhine. (Library Number) 

Three articles in Century, Volume 39. 
I did not care for the traveler's stories, although 
he writes about St. Goar, Cologne, etc.; but the 
pictures were beautiful; they told wonderful stories 
about the Rhine to me. 

George Smith, Class of 1905. 

Life Along the Rhine 

Introduction. Compare the three parts of the 
Rhine valley as to the relative density of popu- 
lation. Similarly compare conditions near the Rhine 
and back upon the highlands. Account for the con- 
trasts. 

Return to Position 2. Heidelberg and the Neckar 
River, Germany 

The city is the site of a famous university. De- 
scribe the buildings and their surroundings. Why 
need they be so crowded? Where are the two 
bridges built? Which is the railway bridge? Why 
there ? What has man done to enable culture of the 
opposite valley side? Why did the site of Heidel- 
berg favor the growth of a city ? 

How would you expect cities like Mannheim on the Rhine, 
in the broad valley beyond, to differ from Heidelberg? 

Return to Position 3. St. Goarshausen and Castle 
Katz, north along the Rhine 

Return to Position 4. Ruin Katz, and St. Goar, on 
the Rhine 

Describe a town of the Rhine gorge. On what 

are these towns built? 



GERMANY LIFE ALONG THE RHINE 155 

Where are they situated with relation to tributary 
valleys ? 

These towns are often styled quaint: why? 

Describe the castles of the Rhine. In what two 
situations were they built ? Notice the general plan, 
thickness of the walls, the size and numbers of the 
windows, of Ruin Katz. For what were the old 
castles intended? 

Compare the slope and vegetation of the valley 
sides above St. Goarshausen and St. Goar. What 
has man done in the former case? What does this 
suggest as to land values ? 

Whence did the wood at St. Goarshausen come, pre- 
sumably? Why left just here? 

Return to Position 5. Cologne and the River Rhine, 
showing Cathedral 

Compare the size of the city of Cologne with that 
of towns just seen. (See statistics in the appendix 
to the text-book in geography, also.) Why the dif- 
ference? Consider in this connection the valley 
form ; note the railway bridge ; study the railways on 
a political map of Germany. Contrast the near 
buildings with one another as to architecture and 
relative age. Describe the Cologne Cathedral, its 
size and architecture. (What is evidently true as 
to the age of the city?) Describe the river front in 
its relation to the life of the city. What estimate of 
the citizens of Cologne do you make from this view 
of their accomplishments? 

Review and Test Lesson 

Return to Position 1. Castle of Stolzenfels, above 
the Rhine 



156 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Describe and explain the position of Oberlahn- 
stein. Notice that the houses extend up a side val- 
ley, at the left. What relation has the position of 
the river channel in the valley to the situation of the 
town? 

Observe the eastern valley slopes. Where are the 
woodlands? Why there? The white lines are ter- 
race walls : why are they built ? 

Describe the castle — a palatial residence now in 
use. In what is it like an ancient castle? In what 
respects unlike ? Would it be of value as a fortress 
in a modern war ? Is the architecture fitting on the 
Rhine ? Would it be on the Hudson ? 

A Letter. Iinagine you have steamed up the 
Rhine from Cologne to Mannheim, thence to Heidel- 
berg, and write a letter home describing several 
typical scenes, and giving your impressions of the 
country. 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 

Berlin 

Position iR. Berlin, seat of a Great Power—west 
from City Hall past Cathedral to Parliament 
Building 

Position 2R. Home of Kaiser Wilbelm, head of 
vast German Empire — Palace, Berlin, west from 
City Hall 

Position 3R. New National Gallery, Berlin— guard- 
ing art treasures — west from Bourse across river 
Spree 

Position 4R. Old Art Museum, Berlin, £lled with 
treasures, north from window in Imperial Palace 

Position 5R. Imperial Picture Gallery along north- 
west side Palace, Berlin, overlooking the Gardens 

Position 6R. Statue of Bismarck, the "Iron Chan- 
cellor" and Empire maker, and the Reichstag, 
Berlin 




Patented U. S. A.. Ait-just SI. 1000. 




rch 22. 1000. 
it.Xr. 21.211 



Patented France. March 2G. 1900. S.G.D.G. 



THE CITY OF BERLIN 157 

Position fR. Hall where German Parliament meets, 
Berlin — 2£. wall, with seats of President and 
Speaker 

Position 8R. University Buildings, Berlin, once 
home of a prince, now frequented by 6,500 
students 

Position qR. Busy Berlin, southwest from Alex- 
ander Sq., down Kdnig Strasse to City Hall 

Position 10R. One of the world f s famous streets— 
TJnter den Linden, Berlin, west from beside 
Palace 

Position 11R. Rapid transit in Berlin — elevated 
railway, east along L,andwehr Canal 

Position 12R. Convenience and architectural beauty 
—elevated railway, west along Bulow Strasse 

Study carefully the map of Berlin in this Guide, 
and locate each Position. Note the relation of the 
scene surveyed from one Position to that viewed 
from another, until you realize the plan of the 
center of the city. Read the accounts on the back 
of the stereographs. Compare the business and 
public buildings as to height, style of architecture, 
general effect, with those in American cities, for ex- 
ample, New York and Washington. Describe "Un- 
ter den Linden." (Positions iR, 2R, 10R.) 
Describe the central square and its surroundings. 
(Positions iR, 3R, 4R, 9R.) Tell about transpor- 
tation in. Berlin, describing the streets, canals, rail- 
ways, vehicles, etc. Compare the elevated railway 
station, bridge, billboards (Positions 10R, 12R), 
and electric light poles with similar features of 
American cities. What should we learn from the 
German capital ? What suggestions do you note as 
to the character of the government of Germany? 
What shows Berlin to be a center of art and 
learning? 



158 geography through the stereoscope 

Transportation on German Waterways 

Position 13R. (Same as Position 5 of Class Series) 
Cologne and River Rhine, showing the Cathedral 

Position 14R. Castle Katz, above St, Goarshansen — 
northeast across the Rhine 

Position 15R. Ancient Magdeburg, a power in the 
Middle Ages — southwest across Elbe to Cathedral 

Position i6R» T,ubeck, once a great power in Euro- 
pean affairs — east across the beautiful river 

Position 17R, Marketing in Stettin, quay beside the 
Oder, looking northeast down stream 

Return to Position 11R. Rapid transit in Berlin- 
elevated railway — I^andwehr Canal 

Prepare to tell your classmates about the various 
craft and their uses, and about the quays with their 
landing stages for passengers and means for hand- 
ling freight. What kind of merchandise do you 
judge is carried, for example, in the many boats 
moored at Magdeburg? Examine a map (Adams' 
Commercial Geography) showing the extent of the 
inland waterways of Germany. Compare them with 
those of America. American lumber is sent up the 
Rhine to Mannheim now, so the main feature of 
the scene below Castle Katz is not so common as 
formerly. How account for the change? Compare 
the several cities as to their buildings, church archi- 
tecture, river fronts. Compare the scenes with those 
at river and lake ports of America. (See pp. 18, 43, 
and 339.) 

Kiel Canal. A Type of Sea-Level Ship Canal. 

Position 18R. Ship canal connecting the Baltic and 
North Seas — east toward terminus at Kiel, Ger- 
many 

Position igR. Kiel, headquarters German navy — 
northeast end of canal from Baltic to North Sea, 
Germany 



COLOGNE CATHEDRAL 159 



Position 20R. Suez Canal at Port Said, Egypt 

Position 21R. The Ship Canal, Corinth — northwest 
from near its southern end — showing bridge in 
distance, Greece 

Prepare to tell about the Kiel canal — the depth, 
width and form of the cut, the vessels using the 
canal, locks or gates and their necessity, the bridge 
and its height with relation to the canal level and 
to the land surface, anchorage basins along the 
canal, a typical cargo westward, etc. Describe the 
Suez and Corinth canals, contrasting them with the 
Kiel canal. Account for the differences in char- 
acter, use and importance. If pupils who study 
these stereographed scenes place maps, diagrams and 
sketches on the blackboard it will help them to in- 
terest and instruct their classmates. 

Cologne Cathedral 

Return to Position 13R. Cologne and the River 
Rhine, showing the great Cathedral 

Position 22R. The Cathedral — the world's £nest 
Gothic structure, Cologne 

Position 23R. Pacade and lower part of huge 
towers, Cathedral, Cologne 

Position 24R. The nave— 145 feet high — from the 
high altar, Cologne Cathedral 

Position 2$R* Looking from among the Cathedral 
spires across to Deutz, from Cologne 

What have you learned previously about Gothic 
architecture? About cathedrals? Compare the 
Cathedral in its general plan, proportions, and size 
with the grandest church you have seen. Tell the 
class about the towers, buttresses, windows, and 
ornamentation. What effects must the Cathedral 
have upon the people who see it towering above 



160 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Cologne; and its interior upon those who worship 
in it ? Describe the view from its roof, and tell what 
it shows you as to the surrounding country and its 
industries. 

German Industries 

Position 26R. Zdfe on a Saxony farm— west across 
hay field to farmhouse, near Meissen 

Position 27R. Ehrenfels Castle, south-west across 
the Rhine to Bingen 

Position 28R. Women laborers in beet sugar indus- 
try—field near Meissen 

Position 2 qR. "Made in Germany" — how willow 
twigs are stripped for basket weaving, at Bam- 
berg 

Position 30R. Where Germany builds her ships — 
S.S. Kaiser Wilhelm II, in ship-yards, Stettin 

Position 31R. Berlin Royal Porcelain, Manufactures 
Section, Paris Exposition 

Study the scenes thoughtfully, and make notes 
upon the topics below for your use when reporting 
to the class. Compare conditions in Germany with 
those in America. With conditions elsewhere in 
the Old World. Call the attention of your class- 
mates to statements in the textbook that these scenes 
have made more interesting and valuable to you. 

Topics. Buildings on a large German farm. 
Rhine vineyards. A sugar beet field in early sum- 
mer. Field laborers. Country hand manufactures. 
Shipyards. German industrial development. Por- 
celains — an illustration of finish given some German 
products. Skill and cost of labor in Germany. 



ALPINE LIFE AND SCENERY 

Introduction. Locate Switzerland on a map in 
your text-book. Name the countries which surround 
it. How does this part of Europe compare in altitude 
and relief with other parts? What range of moun- 
tains makes Switzerland famous? What effect will 
these mountains have upon the moisture brought by 
the westerly winds from over the ocean ? What four 
important rivers find their sources, in part at least, 
among these mountains? 

You are now to visit one of the places among the 
Alps much frequented by tourists. If you can find 
a map giving sufficient detail locate the Ortler in 
the province of Tyrol, Austria, not far from the 
Swiss frontier. 
Position i. The Ortler from Trafoi, Tyrol, Austria 

(a) For what three reasons do people come 
here? Name the things in this scene worth look- 
ing at. Which of these are important to note and 
to describe in the study of geography ? 

(b) Study the glacier. Describe the lower ex- 
tremity in form and marking. What does it re- 
semble in shape as it projects threateningly towards 
the valley below? Describe what you see upon the 
very top of the mountains and at the left : from what 
does the glacier take its rise? (Recall what was 
said in the introduction about the westerly winds 
and explain the condition of the mountain top.) 
In how many places does the glacier extend down 
the mountain side? What is a glacier? 



162 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

(c) What evidence of the action of running 
water do you observe at the very end of the glacier ? 
What becomes of the torrent after it reaches the 
bottom of the steep slope (note what you can see 
down at the extreme left, over the smoke from the 
chimney) ? 

Find the smoothly curving accumulation of gravel 
and sand at the foot of the opposite slope just in 
line with the roof of that large hotel in the dis- 
tance. Note also the narrow opening in the moun- 
tain side at the left and above this gravel. Where 
have you seen miniature deposits similar in shape 
to this? How do you think this pile of sand and 
gravel was formed? It is called a fan delta: can 
you guess why? 

(d) What do you infer from the presence of 
the glacier and snowfield about the altitude of these 
mountains ? What kind of trees do you see ? What 
does this indicate concerning our elevation? Note 
the degree of slope and character of surface of the 
mountain side that rises directly behind the forest. 
Why are these slopes not covered with some kind of 
vegetation? Are the crags and peaks sharp or 
rounded? Of what use to man are mountains of 
this sort? 

(e) How does this valley below differ from the 
mountain side in degree of slope and depth of soil? 
In what ways are the valley slopes useful to man? 
How do most of the buildings at our feet differ 
in construction and appearance from the hotel and 
its out-buildings? What do you infer from this 
concerning the difference in means and culture of 
the peasants and the tourists ? 



ALPINE LIFE 163 

(f) Observe the general appearance of the 
young woman and the children: they are typical of 
the peasant class. What does the form of head 
covering worn by the peasants indicate concern- 
ing their ability to indulge in personal adornment? 
(That cone-shaped basket is used for collecting fag- 
ots or for gathering bits of grass from slopes too 
steep to afford a foothold for the herds, or to bring 
home hay from patches of ground too small to serve 
as pasture. It is only by collecting every blade of 
grass and by cultivating every bit of fertile soil that 
these hard-working peasants can make both ends 
meet.) What do you infer from the possession of 
that basket of the kind of work the peasant women 
are accustomed to do? 

What does the well-kept appearance of the little chapel 
suggest concerning the attitude of these peasants towards 
religious duties? Observe the bell in the steeple; imagine 
the echoes which its peal would awaken between these 
mountain walls. 

Conclusion. Be able to tell the story of your 
visit to Trafoi. Explain where this little hamlet is 
and tell something of the wonderful glacier, the 
snow-covered peaks, the rugged mountains and the 
people whom you met on the road. 

Find Chamonix on a map of Switzerland. In 
what country is it? On what river? Among what 
mountains? In which direction is Mt. Blanc from 
Chamonix? You are now to take a Position oppo- 
site one of the mountain hamlets that cluster upon 
the sloping sides of the valley at the foot of Mt. 
Blanc and look north. 



164 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 2. The picturesque Chamonix Valley, 
mountain hamlets at the foot of Z,e Breyent, Alps 

(a) In what kind, of a region do we find ourselves ? 
To what type ofjiiountains do the peaks opposite be- 
long? Why call this valley picturesque? You are 
looking north : what lofty mountain is almost di- 
rectly behind you? (What time of day is it?) 

Who are these people? What do they do for a living? 
What language do they speak? 

(b) Compare the land upon which the distant 
houses are built with the top and sides of the moun- 
tain in character of surface and degree of slope. (Of 
what advantage is it to the little hamlet to be situ- 
ated upon the south side of the mountain?) Where 
do you see the forest? What are those wriggling 
furrows upon the mountain side at the extreme left ? 
How do you account for the deposits of sand and 
gravel at their lower ends (recall what you saw over 
the roof of the hotel at Trafoi) ? What effect does 
the forest covering have upon the wasting of the 
slopes ? 

(c) In the broad opening between the trees upon 
the opposite side of the valley what evidence do 
you see of the effect of mountain torrents ? Under 
what conditions and at what time of the year are 
those streams likely to be swollen and dangerous? 
What must be the character of the soil near the bot- 
tom of the slope over which these brooks flow ? Why 
is the hamlet situated at one side of the broad open- 
ing? 

(d) Are the houses which make up the hamlet 
large or small? High and narrow or low and 
broad? Do you think they are intended for one 



ALPINE SCENERY 165 

family or more? What reasons ean you give for 
building houses like these? (Why are the roeks 
placed upon the roof of this building at our right?) 

What use is made of the gently sloping fields 
(see the one near by at our left) ? What makes you 
think that the land around the houses upon the op- 
posite slope is used for a similar purpose? 

(e) Note where the slope upon which we are 
standing meets the opposite slope. Find the line of 
bushes and low trees that marks their- junction. 
What would become of the rainfall here that does 
not sink in ? What becomes of the water that flows 
down the mountain sides? Further up the valley 
at the right are the melting glaciers and other 
streams. What would you expect to find, then, 
where the two side slopes meet ? 

(f) Draw an outline of the mountain crest pro- 
jected against the sky. Compare the form of the 
highest peaks with the dome at the right of our 
view. Contrast the character and appearance of the 
surface of the loftier parts of the mountain with the 
wooded slopes below. How do these mountains 
compare with those in Tyrol? Describe the form, 
slopes and general appearance of Alpine mountains. 

Conclusion. Give a description of the valley of 
Chamonix, telling where it is, what makes 
the scenery attractive, the kind of mountains in 
which the valley is situated, the number and appear- 
ance of the mountain torrents, where the hamlets are 
located, the kind of houses, and what the people do 
for a living. 



166 geography through the stereoscope 

Glaciers 

Introduction. Recall your former standpoint at 
Trafoi. Take your Position once more among 
the mountains of Tyrol and review the notes 
which you made at that time in studying the glacier 
there. Distinguish the snowiield from which the 
glacier receives its supply of ice and snow and 
the glacier proper, the tongue of ice that hangs down 
into the valley. How many glaciers do you see 
flowing down from the snowfield ? What configura- 
tion of the mountain top makes it possible for the 
snow to accumulate there ? 

You are now to take your Position up among the 
lofty peaks of the Alps mountains overlooking one 
of the famous Swiss glaciers. 

Position 3. Huge ice river— Fiescher Glacier and 
Oberaarhorn, northeast from the J^ggishorn 

(a) What is the character of. the scenery that 
breaks upon your view? Point the end of your 
stereoscope towards the floor and look down, down, 
down into the valley below: how does the sight 
make you feel? Elevate your gaze: that ghostly 
peak is seven miles away and the width of the 
glacier is a half of a mile. Think how far these dis- 
tances would be in your own home locality. How 
would trees and ordinary houses look at the bot- 
tom of this valley? What do these ideas help to 
teach you about the scale upon which these moun- 
tains are formed? 

(b) What is the most striking characteristic of 
that strip along the middle of the glacier? How 
far up the glacier does it extend? Where do you 



GLACIERS OF THE ALPS 167 

think its lower end will be found (recall a similar 
marking upon the glacial tongue as seen from Posi- 
tion I ) ? This dark band is called a medial moraine. 
Find the furrows and dark lines upon the surface 
of the glacier parallel to the medial moraine: these 
markings are caused by the movement of the ice. 

Where is the source from which this glacier re- 
ceives its supply of snow and ice? In what ways 
does this glacier resemble a river ? Why is a region 
like this not suitable for man's habitation? 

You are now to stand upon another one of the 
mountains in Switzerland — the Gornergrat — about 
9,000 feet above sea level. 

Position 4, Breithorn, Monte Rosa group, from the 
Gornergrat, looking south 

(a) What impresses you most in this scene? 
How does the distant view differ from the moun- 
tain side upon which you are standing ? That ridge 
in front of you is fully three miles away: what 
makes it seem so much nearer? What effect does a 
recognition of this distance have upon your ap- 
preciation of the height of the opposite mountain 
— the Breithorn — and of the area of the snowfield? 
The Breithorn is 13,000 feet high: how much 
higher than our present position? Why should 
there be so much snow and ice there and none here? 

(b) Notice the dark band upon the ice in the 
valley below. Trace it back until it reaches the 
ledge seen in line with the lady's head. On each side 
of that mass of rock a glacier is slowly moving into 
the valley below. The dark band is made up of 
fragments broken from the rocky mass which 



168 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

separates the glaciers and also of waste received 
farther up the valley. Recall the dark line upon 
the glacial tongue seen descending from the Ortler 
( Position i ) . It is called a medial moraine. ( See 
also Position 3.) 

How does the snow on and near the summit of 
the Breithorn seem to differ from that in the ravine 
below? Look closely at that portion of the glacier 
in line with the middle of the nearer man's alpen- 
stock to see if you can discover lines upon the sur- 
face of the ice gently curving down stream from 
side to side. These lines are caused bv the move- 
ment of the mass. 

You will now approach the very edge of a steep 
sided valley to get a view at close range of one of 
these mighty rivers of ice. 

Position 5. The "Mauvais Pas" and Mer de Glace, 
Alps, looking south 

What a dreary and unattractive scene the sur- 
face of the ice below presents! Describe what you 
see. What dangers and difficulties would you en- 
counter in walking upon the glacier? Most of 
these boulders and fragments have rolled down 
from the valley sides. Such a line of waste is a 
lateral moraine. What is .there about the appear- 
ance of the valley wall which helps you to realize 
that it is the source of the fragments? What as- 
sistance has been provided for the mountain climbers 
at this point? Describe the beauty and grandeur 
of the distant mountain view. 

All of the preceding Positions have been in 
the Alps. Your next Position is to be in Nor- 



GLACIERS 169 

way. Find Norway upon a map of Europe. (What 
physiographic and climatic conditions help to make 
Norway the birthplace of glaciers?) You will take 
your stand at the very end of a glacier. 

Position 6. Ragged ice-masses ofKjendals Glacier, 
at lower end where snows of years ago feed the 
river, Norway- 
How small the people look in comparison with 
that great mass! Describe the appearance of the 
ice : its color, the cracks and caves. What are those 
dark patches and streaks upon the upper surface? 
Have you ever seen anything like these streaks upon 
the surface of an old snow drift or icy remnant? 
What do you see lodged in one of the hollows in 
the ice just above the heads of the people? How did 
all these rocky fragments between you and the 
glacier get here? 

Describe the stream which issues from the mar- 
gin of the ice. How does it feel in temperature? 

Summary. Prepare to tell the story of your 
visit to the glaciers as you would like to do to the 
people at home. Recall your first introduction to a 
glacier at Trafoi and then realize how your ideas 
were made clearer and more definite by the visit to 
the Fiescher glacier. Describe with all vividness 
and detail this mighty stream of ice and the pic- 
turesqueness of the surrounding scenery. Then ex- 
plain what you saw as you gazed across the snow- 
fields to the Breithorn and as you followed the 
glacier in its course down the valley and finally 
your satisfaction in beholding the end of an ice 
river with its stream of water tumbling and foam- 
ing among the glacial boulders, 



170 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUP 
Swiss Lake Scenery 

Position iR. T,ake Geneva and the Dent du Midi, 
from the village of Glion, looking south 

Position zR. The bold Axenstrasse, from the cliffs 
860 feet above I^ake Lucerne, looking south 

Position 3R. The Lake of Lucerne from the Axen- 
stein, looking west 

Among the Alps are many beautiful lakes. One 
of the largest is Geneva. Locate it upon the map. 
To what river system does it belong ? Lake Lucerne 
is a much smaller body of water than Geneva. It is 
situated in the north central part of Switzerland. 
What river receives a part of its supply from Lake 
Lucerne ? 

Describe the things which contribute to the beauty 
of Swiss* lake scenery. Note the appearance of the 
surface of the water, the aspect of the landscape 
immediately bordering upon the lakes, the views of 
distant peaks and the effect of clouds upon the 
mountain sides. 

What method of navigation is used upon the 
lakes (Positions iR, 2R) ? Describe some of the 
pleasures of a lake trip. What other mode of travel 
made possible by the enterprise of the people would 
afford wonderful views of lake and mountains (Po- 
sition 2R; also Position iR) ? Describe the great 
undertaking known as the Axenstrasse. Of what 
advantage to Switzerland are facilities like this for 
travel ? 

Note the broad tongue of land upon which the 
hotels and summer villas at Glion are located (Po- 
sition iR). Recall the situation of the little hamlet 



SWISS LAKE SCENERY 171 

at the foot of Le Brevent (page 164) : review the 
explanation of the formation of the fan deltas and 
infer the history of the tongue of land referred to 
above. Describe the surface of the land at the end 
of the lake between the mountains (Position iR). 
The Rhone river enters the lake there : how do you 
suppose this land has been formed? Why is land 
like this especially valuable in Switzerland ? Observe 
the character of the land at the end of Lake Lucerne. 
How does it compare with what you saw at the head 
of Geneva ? Infer the explanation. 

Prepare to tell your classmates about the scenery 
of the Swiss lakes. Note carefully all the elements 
of beauty and grandeur to which your attention has 
been directed and anything else that appeals particu- 
larly to you. Describe for them a trip upon the 
lake and a drive along the precipitous cliff at Lake 
Lucerne. Explain the interesting formations you 
observed upon the shores and at the head of Lake 
Geneva. Tell the class what will happen in course 
of time as a result of the growth of these formations. 



ITALY 

Surface Features 

Introduction. Draw an outline sketch map of 
Italy. Represent the principal mountain ranges in 
the usual way. Recall the character of the 
scenery observed through the stereoscope in the 
study of the Alps (pp. 161-171) : what portion of 
Italy does this illustrate? Note where the moun- 
tains border closely upon the sea and. where the 
coast is low and swampy. Recognize and locate the 
most important physiographic areas. Locate Rome, 
Naples, Genoa, Carrara and Amain. For what is 
each of the first four named places celebrated ? You 
are to get glimpses of the surface features of Italy 
in and around these different localities. 

Your first standpoint will be at Rome. Find 
Position 1 on the map of Rome on page 173. From 
the Dome of St. Peter's on the Vatican Hill you 
will look northeast. This Position is given also on 
the plan of St. Peter's and the Vatican on page 190. 

Position 1. The great Pontifical Palace, the Vatican, 
northeast from St. Peter's Dome, Rome 

Before we look down from this dizzy height at 
the palace below, view for a moment the distant 
scene. Off to our right is Rome with its mass of 
buildings and ruins. Are you looking towards or 
away from the interior of Italy? What seems to be 
the general character of the land in the midst of 



ITALY SURFACE FEATURES 



173 



which the city is situated? From the appearance 
of the country in the hazy distance what do you in- 
fer about the surface features in that direction ? Find 



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the River Tiber in this scene: in what sort of a line 
does it flow? 

Who lives in this great building at our feet? In size 
it is the greatest palace in the world. Note how small the 
people in the square below at the right seem. What effect 
does this have upon your estimate of the magnitude of these 



174 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

buildings? Note that the structure consists of two main 
portions running due north and south and that it encloses 
two great courtyards. What does the Vatican contain which 
attracts visitors to Rome? Ask the librarian of the public 
library to loan you a copy of Rome Through The Stereo- 
scope by D. J. Ellison and read in connection with a study 
of Position I, pages 66-83. Get from the librarian also the 
stereographs that accompany the book and study these 
positions, aided by the text. 

Your next standpoint is to be at Genoa. 

Position 2. Genoa from the Rosazza Gardens 

What is the general character of the surface of 
the land here? Does it offer good opportunity, or 
not, for the construction of roads and the laying 
out of a city? Give reasons. What is the char- 
acter of the surface features seen in the distance? 
What effect does topography like this have upon 
communication by road or railway with other places ? 
Genoa lies at the opening of the Bocchetta Pass 
through the Apennines : what advantage does this 
position possess over other places along the coast? 
At present, railroads from the north tunnel the 
mountains at this point : of what importance is this ? 

From the general appearance of the buildings seen from this 
standpoint what impression do you get concerning the style 
of structure common in Genoa? Read Carpenter's Geo- 
graphical Reader, page 409. 

You are now to take position at Carrara. 

Position 3* Marble blocks from the famous quarries, 
the world's best marble for art sculptures, at 
railway station, Carrara 

Describe this scene near at hand. Look upward 
along the mountain side : can you guess what makes 






ITALY SURFACE FEATURES 175 

the distant ravines look as if they were partly rilled 
with snow? 

Where do you infer the quarries to be located? What 
portion of the United States is famous for its marble quarries ? 

Describe the character of the country near Car- 
rara: note the kind of peaks and ridges and the 
prevailing degree of slope. How do these moun- 
tains compare with the Swiss Alps in form and steep- 
ness? in altitude? (Consider the effect of a topog- 
raphy like this upon the cultivation of the soil.) 
What evidence do you see half way up the moun- 
tain side of the presence of a road? What diffi- 
culties, suggested by this undertaking, are likely to 
prevent the development of the back country? 

You are now to view one of the most celebrated 
scenes in all Italy. You will stand upon a height 
and look over Naples and its bay to Vesuvius. 

Position 4, Birdseyc view of Naples and Vesuvius 

In which direction are you looking (recall map) ? 
On which hand is the Mediterranean Sea ? the main- 
land of Italy? What important type of land form 
do you see from this standpoint? It is the only 
one upon the continent of Europe. Make a simple 
sketch of its outline and describe its general form, 
number of peaks and the varying degree of slope 
from base to summit. Describe the distribution of 
buildings over the lower slopes of the mountain: 
why do people dare to risk their lives and property 
so near an active volcano? 

At the extreme right of our field of vision what 
do you see that reveals something of the char- 
acter of the distant surface features? 



176 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Describe the situation and general appearance of Naples. 
Note the width of the streets, the presence or absence of 
open spaces, and infer the habits of life of the people. Note 
the evidences of commerce : — shipping, warehouses, wharves. 
What artificial construction was necessary to improve the 
harbor of Naples ? Read about the importance of Naples 
as a port . 

Recall the location of Amalfi. Your next stand- 
point will be at that place. 

Position 5. Amalfi, Italy, from the Capuchin Con- 
vent 

Describe the kind of land that borders upon the 
Mediterranean Sea here at Amalfi. Describe the 
location of the hotel below in relation to the cliff and 
compare its situation with that of the other buildings 
beyond. What is true concerning the availability 
of land suitable for building sites? For roadways? 
How have the obstacles encountered in constructing 
a road along the shore been overcome ? In which di- 
rection will a place like this grow? What makes 
Amalfi picturesque and attractive? 

Recall the situation of Genoa and the character of 
the country and shore line in that part of Italy as 
shown upon a good physical map. You are now to 
go to Portoftno, near Genoa. 

Position 6. Portofino, a picturesque hamlet upon 
the Mediterranean coast, near Genoa 

Describe the character of the coast line visible 
from this point of view. Explain the apparent ef- 
fect of the action of the waves upon the cliffs directly 
in front of you in the middle distance. Are con- 
ditions along this shore favorable or not for the lo- 
cation of villages, towns and cities? Give reasons. 



ITALY SURFACE FEATURES 177 

What effect would the character of the back country 
have upon the growth of coastal settlements ? What 
are some of the natural advantages which have led 
to the establishment of the hamlet of Portofino ? 

Summary. Name and locate the different 
standpoints which you have taken. Tell some in- 
teresting historical or geographical facts about each. 
Distinguish between the kind of land around Rome 
and that near Genoa, Carrara and Amalfi. Which 
is characteristic of the greater part of Italy? Com- 
pare also the shore line at Naples with that seen at 
Amalfi and Portofino. Near Rome what is the shore 
line likely to be ? 

Describe the scene about Naples : the position of 
the city in relation to the water and to Vesuvius, the 
kind of land bordering upon the shore and extending 
back into the interior, the usefulness of this land to 
the people. Discuss the effect of Vesuvius upon the 
desirability of this portion of Italy as a site for cities 
and homes, and upon the usefulness of the soil for 
agricultural purposes. 

Compare the ridges and slopes of the mountains 
at Carrara with those near Genoa. Of what type of 
mountain scenery is each an example ? In which of 
the places that you have seen through the stereoscope 
is the land likely to be poorly drained? What con- 
dition of unhealthfulness is the result? In what 
other portions of Italy does this condition prevail? 
In what seasons ? What effect does this have upon 
the visits of tourists? Upon the use to which land 
might be put? (In Tarr & McMurry's text-book on 
Europe find some statements in answer to this ques- 
tion.) 



178 geography through the stereoscope 
Rome 

Introduction. Locate Rome. Compare the pres- 
ent city with itself in earlier times in regard 
to political importance, commercial prosperity and 
number of inhabitants. Enumerate the attractions 
which draw tourists and others to Rome. 

Find upon the map of Rome, on page 173, your 
next Position. You are to stand on the dome of St. 
Peter's, over four hundred feet above the ground, 
and, as you see by the map, look toward the east. 

Position 7. Rome, the Eternal City, from the Dome 
of St. Peter's 

Observe for a moment the extent of view obtained 
from this lofty standpoint. Describe briefly the gen- 
eral appearance of the city and country immediately 
surrounding it. Then pick out and study the most 
important details. Describe the Piazza of St. Peter's 
(the area immediately below surrounded by the curv- 
ing colonnade), the River Tiber, the Castle of St. 
Angelo (the cylindrical building just this side of the 
three-arched bridge upon the Tiber). In which di- 
rection is the Vatican from here? 

Your next standpoint is to be upon the roof of 
that house seen directly over the tall obelisk in the 
center of the Piazza. That Position 8 is given on 
the map. You are now to look west towards the 
great church. 

Position 8. St. Peter's and the Vatican, greatest of 
Churches, greatest of Palaces 

What is the most conspicuous architectural fea- 
ture of St. Peter's? Describe it. What symbol 



ROME 179 

crowns the highest portion of this magnificent struc- 
ture? How do these five-story buildings in the 
shadow on our left compare in height with the 
cathedral ? Look also at those lofty buildings on the 
right joined to St. Peter's : they are a part of the 
Vatican, the Palace of the Pope. What do you in- 
fer concerning the number and grandeur of its apart- 
ments ? 

What effect does the open space, or Piazza, 
as it is called, in front of the cathedral have upon 
your appreciation of the architecture and grand pro- 
portions of the building? Observe the general plan 
of the Piazza: its scheme of ornamentation and the 
colonnade by which it is almost surrounded. 

The Pantheon before which you are now to 
stand is one of the famous buildings of Rome. Find 
Position 9 on the map of Rome. 

Position g. "Sanctuary and home of art and piety 
— Pantheon I Pride of Rome " 

From the general appearance of this building 
what do you infer concerning the length of time it 
has been standing? What is the shape of the main 
building? What kind of a roof does it have ? This 
feature is one of the boldest pieces of construction 
executed by the master-builder of the world. Draw 
a simple outline sketch of the front of the temple. 
How many columns in all support the portico? Of 
what order of architecture are they a type? They 
are the earliest examples of this kind in Rome. 

The proportions of the Pantheon are so har- 
monious that its colossal size is not at first apparent. 
Note, however, the number of stories in these build- 



180 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

ings at the left. Then, by way of comparison, ob- 
serve the height of the columns at the entrance to 
the Pantheon and the loftiness of the massive struc- 
ture itself. 

From an encyclopaedia or handbook of Rome find out more 
about the celebrated structure; when it was built, by whom, 
for what purpose, for what it is now used and what famous 
men are buried there. 

Observe the fountain near at hand. Rome is 
famous for its fountains. 

You are now to stand near the spot which was 
once the center of the political, the religious and 
the business life of Rome, the Forum. See the 
map. 

Position 10. The Roman Forum, southeast from 
the Capitol, Rome 

The Forum is the open space at the left of our 
field of vision. A single column stands at the end 
nearer us. How does the level of the Forum com- 
pare with that of the surrounding land? (Read in 
some history of Rome how this area, once a marsh, 
was reclaimed.) What is the present condition of 
the Forum and its surroundings? Below at the 
right you see the bases of columns belonging to an 
ancient temple. By careful observation you can form 
some idea of the magnitude of the Forum and the 
adjacent ruins. Note the situation of the Colos- 
seum from this position. 

While you look at the scene remember the great 
historic importance of what was said and done upon 
this spot in former times. Try to imagine how this 
place looked in the time of Rome's supremacy. 



ROME 181 

The next Position is in front of one of the most 
celebrated places in Rome, the Colosseum. We shall 
stand just beyond that arch seen directly before 
us on a rise of ground and look directly at the 
Colosseum. See the map. 

Position ii, A mighty monument to heathen brutal- 
ity and Christian courage, the Colosseum, Rome 

In what condition do we find this building ? How 
does it compare in this respect with its surround- 
ings ? What name is given to this part of the city ? 
(What do you infer concerning its importance at 
the present time to the life of the city? Why call 
the Colosseum a mighty monument to heathen bru- 
tality? to Christian courage?) 

What is the general shape of the building? How 
many stories does the wall at the left show that it 
once had? How many are now seen at the right? 
What is the most conspicuous architectural feature, 
in addition to its form, by which you would recog- 
nize this building? 

Find out from an encyclopaedia or other reference book 
when the Colosseum was built, what it was intended for, 
when it was abandoned and any other interesting facts about 
it. What has become of the material which once composed 
the now dilapidated walls? 

Next to the Colosseum, the Castle of St. Angelo, 
which you are to see from the next standpoint, is 
said to be the most imposing monument of ancient 
Rome. Find Position 12 on the map. 
Position 12. Bridge and Castle of St. Angelo, Rome 

(Recall the location of the Castle of St. Angelo 
as seen from Position 1.) 



182 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Describe the situation and general appearance of 
the castle viewed at close range. This building was 
constructed by the Emperor Hadrian as a tomb. 
Later it was used as a fortress. Notice the wall 
which surrounds the main structure : what is there 
outside the wall which increases the difficulty of 
attack? What other features of this castle make it 
well fitted for defence? What portion of the struc- 
ture shows the ravages of time ? 

Describe the approach to the castle: what indica- 
tion do you see of the appreciation of art by the 
Romans ? 

Read about the vision of Pope Gregory the Great and the 
statue of the Archangel Michael, which commemorates this 
event. 

Summary. Think through the list of standpoints 
in the order in which they are given in this guide. 
In connection with each one recall the most 
important features to which your attention was di- 
rected. Then describe in writing or orally as you 
would to your classmates what you saw in your visit 
to Rome. In this description discuss the present im- 
portance of the city, its principal modern buildings 
and the evidences of an earlier civilization. 

Venice 

Introduction. Directed by your teacher's ques- 
tions, review what you have learned in other 
years about Venice. Mark the location of Venice 
on a sketch map of Italy or Europe. Where is it 
situated with relation to the Alps? The Po valley?. 
The Adriatic? 



VENICE 183 

Find Position 13 on the map of Venice in this 
book. In what direction are you to look? What 
will be within your view? 

Position 13, "The Bride of the Sea," a view from 
the Campanile, Venice 

(a) This is a typical view: to left, to right, and 
northward also there are roofs beneath us and waters 
beyond. What seems to you the most remarkable 
feature of the city? Why should it be called the 
"Bride of the Sea?" 

(b) Beyond the farther church is a group of low 
buildings on an island. Describe briefly the surface 
of that island. Upon what is the rest of Venice 
built? (What advantages of situation did Venice 
possess during mediaeval wars? What kind of de- 
fences did the city need? Compare Venice and the 
British Isles in these respects.) 

In a word or two describe the surface of the distant main- 
land (remembering that we are looking southwest toward 
the coast of Italy). Compare it with the shores of Norway. 
Compare its surface form, or relief, with that of the Alps. 
Why does a swift current make valleys and peaks at the 
headwaters of the Po? And why does a slackening current 
form low delta islands and mud-flats about its mouth? 

(c) Study the city. How close together are the 
buildings ? How much space for roads on the water 
front? For yards and gardens? Why is this so? 
Compare the conditions with those at Stockholm, the 
"Venice of the North." Why the difference? 

(d) What is the most direct way to get from the 
houses beneath to either of the two churches in 
sight? What means of communication do you see? 

(e) Describe the vessels at anchor — their size, 
rigging, etc. What purposes do you judge they 



184 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

serve? What advantages do they suggest as to the 
position of Venice ? What occupations suggested ? 

(f) Describe the nearer church, Santa Maria 
della Salute, and its surroundings. Compare the 
magnitude of the building as a whole with the size 
of the people beside it. With what feelings do these 
lofty domes impress you? What are some of the 
things that have caused Venice to be called beauti- 
ful? 

History. Read about the history of Venice, 
using the index to some history of Europe. Learn 
about the barbarian invasions of Italy, and how they 
caused Venice to be founded ; the Crusades, and how 
Venetians seized the opportunity to increase their 
commerce and wealth; the discovery of new routes 
to the Far East in the time of Columbus, and how 
Venice declined through loss of her commerce. 
Carpenter's Europe gives a good brief statement. 
Read also about the adventures of Marco Polo, the 
Venetian traveler to China. 

Streets of Venice 

You are now to step into a gondola and take Po- 
sition on the main thoroughfare of Venice. Find 
Position 14 on the map of Venice, and note its 
relation to your first Position. 

Position 14, The Grand Canal, Venice 

What things excite your wonder as you look from 
your gondola? Compare this Venetian highway 
with the most beautiful city street you know in 
America. Which is more picturesque? Why? 
Which more convenient? 



186 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

What are these boats for? How do they differ 
from boats in use in your country? Do their flat 
bottoms and light draft seem fitted to lagoon waters ? 
And to turning street corners? Are they built for 
calm or rough waters? Why do you think so? 

Of what materials are the walls of these palaces? 
Compare an entrance and its surroundings with that 
of some mansion in your community. Why the 
posts rising out of the water before every palace 
entrance? Describe the windows and balconies. 

On what are the palaces and churches built? What 
foundations must they have? What kind of men must have 
settled and built Venice? 

Try to picture to yourself the palace and its outlook when 
some great festival procession throngs this broad way. 
Read the story of a gondola race in Cooper's novel, The 
Bravo. 

Do you recognize the church dome and the low 

Arsenal of Venice beyond as buildings you studied 

from the Campanile? Evidently the Grand Canal 

leads to the broad waters of the Lagoon. Standing 

on an island in the Lagoon, you will next look back 

to your first standpoint on the Campanile. Find 

Position 15 on the map. 

Position 15. Venice — 4 'White Swan of cities, slum- 
bering in thy nest" — Campanile, Doge's Palace 
and Prison 

Why call Venice a "white swan?" Why is the 
thought of slumber appropriate to the city's pres- 
ent life? 

Picture to yourself this scene by moonlight, with lights 
and distant songs; what dreams of past glories would it call 
to a traveler's mind? Why do so many tourists visit Venice? 
Is it a good investment for Venice to preserve carefully her 
ancient buildings? 



VENICE 187 

What purpose do you think the Campanile was 
built to serve? (Look up the meaning of its name 
in a large dictionary.) What makes it impressive? 
Can you sketch the tower and its surroundings from 
memory? In rebuilding it, after its fall in 1902, 
why should the foundations be broadened and 
strengthened ? 

What is the most beautiful building in view? 
What gives it beauty? What other European cities 
have famous public buildings erected in mediaeval 
or ancient times? Are there any like structures in 
America ? 

Notice the Bridge of Sighs connecting the second 
story of the palace with that of the prison on its 
right. Read the poem by Byron written on the 
blackboard. Why are bridges needed in Venice? 
(Do you like them as well as, or better than, bridges 
in America? Why?) What kind of a street passes 
under the Bridge of Sighs? 

Where is there a parallel street? Where do you see the 
dark, narrow opening of an alleyway for foot travelers? 
Where is the public square? 

Review the previous questions about the palaces 
and boats. 

Leaving the gondola you are next to take your 
stand on a little footbridge that crosses a narrow 
canal bordered by ancient palaces. 

Position 16. A serpentine by-way, Venice 

What two ways of moving about in Venice do 
you observe? How can one enter Venetian houses? 
Why do you suppose the street is serpentine ? What 



188 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

advantage in making gondolas narrow? Why not 
use a pair of oars to propel them? What modern 
craft is adapted to replace the gondola? 

In the Middle Ages the craftsmen of Venice 
produced beautiful work in wrought iron : to what 
purpose do you see that some of it was put? Look 
sharply up and down the nearest building: what 
modern inventions do you notice in use in old 
Venice ? 

Comparisons. Compare Venice with the cities 
of northern Europe that have many canals. Com- 
pare the waterfront, shipping, and means of trans- 
portation in Venice with the same features in New 
York. What results have crowded conditions and 
high land values produced in each city? Why are 
results unlike in the two cases? 

Supplementary Work. Bring to school from 
the public library the bound volumes of magazines 
having illustrated articles on Venice. (See Poole's 
Index.) Cut from old files of the Youth's Compan- 
ion, and like periodicals, interesting articles on 
Venice, and start a series of small scrap books or 
portfolios for use by your teacher in future years. 

With brush and ink, or color, make a souvenir 
postal card (showing a view of the Grand Canal, 
a palace entrance, a bridge, or a gondola) and write 
thereon a message home stating briefly the wonders 
of Venice that most impress you. 



ITALY THE VATICAN 189 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 

Pope Pius and the Vatican 

From the following standpoints you will see some 
of the most celebrated apartments of the Vatican, 
a part of the garden in which the Pope takes exer- 
cise, and you will also come into the presence of the 
Pope himself. Note the Positions on the accom- 
panying map of St. Peter's and the Vatican. 

Position iR. The Library of the Vatican 
Position zR. Gallery of the Vatican 

Position 3R. The Sistine Chapel, where Popes are 
crowned, Vatican 

Position 4R. Bower of St. Anthony, Vatican Gardens 

Position 5R. The Holy Pather is speaking! Eager 
throngs in the Court of San Damaso, in the 
Vatican 

Position 6R. Pope Pius X bestowing his benedic- 
tion as Supreme Pontiff, from his throne in the 
Vatican 

Recall the great Pontifical palace as seen looking 
northeast from the dome of St. Peter's (Position 
1 ) , and as seen from Position 8. Describe again 
the general plan of the building, note its relation 
to St. Peter's and compare it in size with the 
ordinary houses near by. 

One of the most magnificent halls in the Vatican 
is the Library (Position iR). Observe the vaulted 
ceiling and describe the decorations upon the pil- 
lars and upon the sides and top of the corridor. 
What objects of art do you see? Note the lighting 
of the Library: how does the plan of the building 
make this possible? 

Another famous gallery is seen from Position 2R. 



190 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



ST. PETER'S 
AND THE VATICAN 




SCALE OF FEET 



g w in tw «u »» 

Copyright, 1907, by Underwood Sr Underwood 

Patented U.S.A., August 21, 1900. 

Patentea Fiance. March 26, 1900. S. Gi D. O. 



Patented Great Britain, March 22 x 1900 
Switzerland, C^Jd Patent Nr. 21,211, 



Describe what you see. What makes the ceiling of 
this room in itself worth coming to see? 

Describe the Sistine Chapel. How are the walls 
decorated? That painting which completely covers 
the opposite end of the room is "The Last Judg- 
ment," by Michel Angelo. Try to find some de- 
scription of it ( See Rome Through the Stereoscope, 
by D. J. Ellison). 

Describe one of the avenues in the Vatican Gar- 



FLORENCE 191 

dens. (Position 4R.) Note how fresh air and 
seclusion are both made possible. The trees with 
gnarled and twisted branches are olives. Who be- 
side ourselves are enjoying the cool, refreshing vista? 
Tell what you saw in the presence of the Pope 
(Position 5R), how the sight of the Holy Father 
and of the throngs of people impressed you. De- 
scribe also the Supreme Pontiff bestowing his bless- 
ing (Position 6R). 

Florence 

As you take these Positions locate them on the 
map of Florence. 

Position ?R, Florence from San Miniato 

Position 8R. The Duomo, "The very great heart" 
of Florence 

Position gR. Palazzo Vecchio and Piazza Delia 
Signoria, where Savonarola was imprisoned and 
burned, Florence 

Position 10R. The Vecchio Bridge and the River 
Arno, Florence 

Position 11R. The Wrestlers, Venus de Medici, and 
Knife Grinder, three master-pieces in the Tri- 
buna, TJf&zzi Gallery, Florence 

Position 12R. A glimpse in the Pitti Palace Gallery, 
Florence 

Describe the location of Florence in relation to 
surface features as shown upon a physical map and 
as seen from the first four standpoints. 

Describe the general appearance of the city (Posi- 
tion 7R) : its buildings, bridges and river. 

What two buildings rise prominently above all 
others? Tell all you can about them (Positions 8R 
and 9R and encyclopaedia). What features make 



192 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

each easily recognizable ? Observe the beautiful bell 
tower at the right of the nearer end of the cathedral 
(Position 8R). 

What seems to be the usual method of roofing the 
houses in Florence? (Positions 8R, 9R and 10R.) 

Describe the bridges which cross the Arno, es- 
pecially the nearest one in Position 10R. What is 
its most picturesque feature? Describe the view 
down the river. Are its waters clear or muddy? 




Copyright, 1907, by Unae-i wood 3r Underwood 

Patented U.S.A., August 21, 1300. 

Patented Prance, March 26, 1900. S. G; D. 0. 



Patented Greot Britain, if arch 22 \ 19 
Switzerland, d^p Patent Nr, 21,211. 



VENICE 193 

In Florence are celebrated picture galleries. De- 
scribe the works of art seen from Positions 1 1 R and 
12R. Explain the presence of the two pictures of 
the Madonna (Position 12R). Which is the 
original ? 

Sum up your impressions of Florence : its location, 
principal buildings, bridges, river and works of art. 

St. Mark's Cathedral, Venice 

You first approach the public landing beside the 
Campanile, next stand in the Square beyond the 
Doge's Palace, facing the cathedral, then enter and 
view its marvelous decorations. See Positions on 
the map of Venice, page 185. 

Position 13R. The Venetian L,ion in the Piazzetta, 
from the lagoon, Venice 

Position 14R. San Marco, Venice, "An oriental 
poem in marble, mosaic and gold " 

Position 15R. Interior of San Marco Cathedral, 
Venice 

Plan to tell your classmates about your visit to 
the cathedral. Speak of the pillars where you land- 
ed, the people and doves in the square, and the im- 
pression the cathedral made upon you as you gazed 
upon its domes and when you stood within the beau- 
tiful interior. Compare the cathedral with those of 
northern Europe you have studied. 

You will find the story of the patron saint of Ven- 
ice, St. Mark, and an account of the four bronze 
horses, in the travel story by J. DeMille entitled 
The Winged Lion, or Stories of Venice. In the 
book, Venice as Seen and Described by Famous 
Writers, you will find descriptions of the cathedral, 
the neighboring square, its doves and varied life. 



RUSSIA 

Introduction. Locate the Russian Empire. 
Consider with your teacher its position, size, climate 
and distribution of the people. 

Find Moscow : in what part of Russia is it ? Lo- 
cate Nijni Novgorod, St. Petersburg, Kief and 
Odessa. 

Peasant Life 

The majority of the people in Russia are peasants. 
They are largely farmers who live in small vil- 
lages. The cultivated fields, in the midst of which 
their homes are located, are owned not by individ- 
uals but by the town. The custom is for the peo- 
ple to work together in groups, each group under 
the leadership of one of their number. 

You will now see some of these people in a hay- 
field near St. Petersburg. Locate your first Position 
upon a map. 

Position i. Making hay in Russia 

(a) Describe the ages and sex of the laborers. 
Note the kind of cap, the style of boots and blouse 
worn by the men : they are characteristic of the 
Russian peasant. We shall find them worn by peo- 
ple in other parts of Russia which we visit. What 
do you infer concerning the relation of women in 
Russia to farm labor? What evidence do you see 
of modern means of travel and transportation? of 
communication ? 



RUSSIAN PEASANT LIFE 195 

(b) How do the methods of the Russian peas- 
ant in making hay differ from ours ? Does the sur- 
face of this field favor the introduction of planting 
and harvesting machinery? What observation that 
you have already made leads you to suppose that 
these machines can be readily shipped into this part 
of Russia? What do you infer concerning the 
ability of these people to pay for expensive farm 
tools? What must be the reason for the absence 
of labor-saving machinery? How does the condi- 
tion of the Russian peasant compare with that of 
the farm laborers in America ? 

What do you see growing upon the land beyond the 
cultivated ground? This is characteristic of this part of 
Russia. 

In what part of Russia is Nijni Novgorod? The 
next standpoint is taken in the country not far from 
that city. Find this Position upon the map. 

Position 2. Characteristic country house in the heart 
of Russia 

(a) Wlio are these people? What do they do 
for a living? From their dress what do you infer 
about their prosperity? What does the style of 
head covering worn by the women indicate con- 
cerning their means for indulging in personal adorn- 
ment? (In what other countries have you noticed 
a similar fashion?) From the general appearance 
of the people and the condition of the dooryard 
what seems to be their attitude towards neatness 
and cleanliness? Sum up your impressions of the 
condition and habits of the Russian peasant. 

(b) Of what material is the hut built? (Were 
structures of this kind ever common in the part of 



196 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

the world in which you live? Of what was the 
Irish peasant's hut built?) Upon what are these 
people sitting? Enumerate the facts observed in 
this scene which indicate the abundance of timber 
in this part of Russia. From the way the dwelling 
is built and from the fact that the barn is joined 
closely to the house, what do you infer about the 
severity of the winter here? 

A great fair for the sale and exchange of every 
variety of goods from all over Russia and from 
parts of Asia is held every year in August and Sep- 
tember at Nijni Novgorod. Their fair grounds, de- 
serted during the rest of the year, become for the 
time being a gigantic department store. What are 
some of the advantages of position which this place 
possesses for a fair of this sort? Will its fair be- 
come more or less important as railways make 
transportation easy, cheap and frequent? 

You will now mingle with the throng of people 
busily engaged in inspecting and buying goods. 

Position 3. Russian cloth market in the "Fair" of 
Nijni Novgorod 

(a) From the dress and general appearance of 
these people to what class would you say they be- 
longed? How do their garments compare with the 
clothing which people in America would wear upon 
an occasion of this sort? What articles of apparel 
do you see which are associated in your mind with 
the Russian costume ? Does the dress of these peo- 
ple seem appropriate for this time of the year? 

(b) What kind of goods are offered for sale in 
this part of the fair? Are they figured or plain? 



RUSSIAN PEASANT LIFE 197 

bright or dull? What kind of patterns seem to be 
worn by the women for kerchiefs and for skirts? 
You will find this common among all Russian peas- 
ants (see Positions i and 2). 

Look at that tiny structure in the distance with a 
pyramid-shaped roof supported by posts. What 
symbol rises prominently above the roof and sug- 
gests the character of the place? Find the paint- 
ing hanging within : it is a sacred picture called an 
icon. W T hat does the presence of this shrine in the 
midst of a busy market place tell you about the 
Russian peasants' attitude towards religious forms? 

Summary. Be able to tell orally and in writ- 
ing about the Russian peasants according to the fol- 
lowing paragraphs : 

Locate the parts of Russia in which you have seen 
them, describe what they were doing, what they 
wore and what you inferred about their attitude 
towards religious observances. What did you infer 
about their thrift and enterprise? 

Describe the style of peasants' dwelling seen in 
central Russia. Tell what geographical conditions 
have affected the construction of the house and com- 
pare the materials used in building with those em- 
ployed in Ireland. Compare also the Russian dwell- 
ing with the cabins of the early settlers and fron- 
tiersmen in America. 

Recall what was said and observed in regard to 
the way the Russian peasants work in the field. In- 
clude an account of their methods of performing 
farm labor and your conclusions in regard to the 
absence of labor-saving machinery. Compare the lot 



198 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

of the Russian peasant with that of the American 
farmer. 

Supplementary. Read in Carpenter's Geo- 
graphical Reader, Europe, Chapter XXXIII, The 
Russian Peasants. 

Surface Features 

Introduction. What does the physical map (see 
text book) indicate about the character of the 
land surface of Russia? What hint of this fact 
have you already obtained ( Position i ) ? What 
two large rivers flow from the very center of Russia 
southward ? Judging from the kind of land through 
which they flow do you think these rivers would be 
swift or sluggish? Would you -expect to find them 
used for water-power or for navigation? How do 
they compare in this respect with the rivers of Nor- 
way? Review the location of Moscow and Nijni 
Novgorod. Where is Kief? 

You are now to take Position just outside of 
Moscow. 

Position^ Prom Sparrow Hills, Napoleon's first 
view of Moscow 

Describe the character of the country between you 
and the distant city. What does the patchwork ap- 
pearance of the land show that it is being used for? 
(What effect will the proximity of a large city like 
Moscow have upon the value of the land for this 
purpose? What reasons occur to you for supposing 
this land to be fertile?) What do you see almost 
hidden by yonder trees? (Why is this feature not 
found upon the maps in the school text books?) 



RUSSIA 199 

What do you infer from the character of the distant 
skyline concerning the surface of the land as far as 
one can see? What makes this scene attractive? 

To what historical event does the title of this position 
refer ? 

In the next Position, at Nijni Novgorod, you are 
to stand upon a bluff bordering the Oka river, a 
tributary of the Volga. 

Position 5. The floating bridge over the Oka river, 
and the "Fair" of Nijni Novgorod 

Which features of this scene are most attractive 
and interesting to you? What limits the extent of 
your distant view ? What part of the United States 
does this boundless vision suggest? What do you 
learn from this scene about the surface of this part 
of Russia? From the appearance of the Oka River 
of what importance do you think it is for commerce ? 

What portions of the costume of these people close at 
hand do you recognize as Russian? What are those buildings 
across the river? (Recall Position 3.) 

Compare the bank on which you are standing with 
the opposite shore of the river: which is the river 
undercutting ? Is it the right or left bank ? This is 
true of other rivers of the Russian Plain. 

Review the location of Kief. In what part of 
Russia is it? Upon what river? You are now to 
take Position upon a bluff overlooking a portion of 
the city and look north. 

Position 6. The Podol portion of ancient Kief 

Upon what sort of land are the buildings in front 
of you situated? Describe the kind of country that 



200 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

stretches away as far as you can see. From the ap- 
pearance of the skyline what do you infer about the 
character of the distant land? In what sort of a 
course does the river flow through this region? 
(Why would you expect it to take this kind of a 
course?) From the appearance of the river bank 
near the distant buildings what do you infer con- 
cerning the usefulness of this river for commerce 
and the importance of Kief as a trade center? 

Your next standpoint will be taken at Solinen 
upon the shores of the Black Sea not far from 
Odessa. Find that Position upon the map. 

Position 7. Overlooking the extensive salt fields of 
Solinen , Russia 

Note the huge prisms of glittering white salt ! Observe also 
that the level land beyond and to the left is divided into 
sections. These sections are flooded by a thin layer of sea 
water. Evaporated by the sun and wind, this water leaves its 
salt behind in a thin crust. From the presence of this 
industry what do you infer about the amount of rainfall in 
this part of Russia? 

Aside from this novel sight what would you say 
about the attractiveness of the scenery? How does 
the distant view compare with other parts of Rus- 
sia or of the United States which you have seen 
through the stereoscope or in pictures? What evi- 
dence do you see of trees ? Explain. 

Summary. Of what portions of Russia have 
you gained some idea of the surface features 
through the stereoscope? From the physical map 
what do you infer concerning the way the rest of 
Russia compares with these parts? Describe in 
general the character of the land in Russia. 



ST. PETERSBURG 201 

Is Russia capable of supporting a large popula- 
tion in all sections ? Give reasons. Is it likely to 
be an exporter or importer of food stuffs, hides, etc. ? 
How does it compare in this respect with Switzer- 
land, Norway, the United States? To what extent 
do the climatic conditions of the northern part 
prevent agriculture? What makes the region 
around the Black Sea unfit for cultivation? 

Does the surface of Russia favor or hinder the 
extension of railroads? Give reasons. What 
natural lines of communication are used at present 
to a great extent in Russia? What effect would 
improved means of travel and transportation have 
upon the development of Russia? 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 
St. Petersburg 

Position iR. Riding School of the Life Gnards, 
Senate, Academy and Vasilii Ostrof 

Position 2R. Nevsky Prospect, the principal street 
of St. Petersburg 

Position 3R. St. Catherine Church and Holy Water 
Procession, St Petersburg 

St. Petersburg was founded by Peter the Great 
in 1703. In what part of the country is it located 
and why is this an important position for a city? 
By imperial command thousands of workmen 
changed a swampy morass into a new national capi- 
tal. Materials for breakwaters, wharves, buildings 
and streets were brought from a distance. . At the 
proper time large numbers of Russian nobles and 
merchants were summoned to take up their resi- 
dence in the new city. Thus at one man's bidding 



202 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

this great stone city sprang like magic into being. 

From Position iR upon the top of a high build- 
ing you will view the city looking west. Note the 
general appearance of the buildings : of what ma- 
terials they are built, the number of stories, whether 
they are attractive or not and how they compare 
with the buildings of other cities you have seen. 
What reason can you give for so many chimneys? 

From Positions iR and 2R observe the width of 
the streets, the presence of any parkways, the peo- 
ple traveling to and fro and the methods of trans- 
portation in vogue. What is your opinion con- 
cerning the undertaking which Peter the Great 
planned and carried through? Do you think he is 
worthy of his title? 

Describe the scene in Position 3R. What do you 
learn from this about one of the customs of the 
people? (What form of religion do the Russians 
follow? What is the relation of the Czar to the 
church? Does the Russian church acknowledge the 
Pope?) 

Moscow 

Position 4R. Moscow, "Pride of the Czars" {south- 
east from, the Temple of our Saviour) 

Position 5U. The Kremlin, Moscow, Russia, "There 
lie our ancient Czars asleep " 

Position 6R. The Kremlin Wall and Tower of the 
Sacred Gate, Moscow 

In what part of European Russia is Moscow 

situated? Of what commercial advantage is its 

position upon the Moscow River? What is there 

about the location of Moscow and the character of 

the country in which it is situated that helps to make 



Moscow 203 

it the chief railroad center of Russia? With what 
city in the United States may it be compared in 
this respect? 

What impressions do you get from Position 4R 
of the size of Moscow ? Recall again what you have 
learned about the surface features of Russia : what 
confirmation do you find in Position 4R? What 
reason do you see for calling this city Holy Mos- 
cow? Turn to the Kremlin (Position 5R). It is 
in the very center of the city. By what is it sur- 
rounded (Positions 5R and 6R) ? Of what is it 
built? How high do you estimate it to be? What 
purpose did the enclosure serve in ancient times? 
From the symbol which rises proudly towards the 
sky from each dome and turret what do you infer 
these buildings to be? What is the large square 
building at the left? Find the tall tower of Ivan 
the Great. What do you see at each opening in this 
tower? What purpose does this tower serve? In 
the cathedral of Michael directly in front of us, the 
second from the tower of Ivan, forty-seven of the 
Czars who ruled before the time of Peter the Great 
are buried. In the building next to the bell tower 
each new Czar since the sixteenth century has been 
crowned. In the third cathedral, the one nearest 
the palace, most of the Czars have been baptized 
and married. 



GREECE 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 

The Land and the People 

Where is Greece? When was it most famous? 
What kind of people then lived in Sparta ? With a 
library atlas you can locate seven of the eight Po- 
sitions you are to take. 

Position iR. Looking over modern homes in an- 
cient Sparta, west to famous Taygetos Mountains 

Position 2 R, Agamemnon f s council hall in "the 
innermost corner of Argos" — south-southwest 
over the plain to sea, Mykense 

Position 3R. Argos and the plain whose horses were 
famed in Homer f s day, southeast from Zarisa to 
Nauplia 

Position 4R, The I^arisa, or ancient citadel (950 feet 
high) west from market place, Argos 

Position 5R. Ruins of the theatre (4th cent,, B. C), 
largest in Greece — Thersilion to left, (northeast), 
Megalopolis 

Position 6R. North over Pharsala and the plain 
where Csesar defeated Pompey (48 B. C.) 

Position 7R. A shepherd and his flock, in classic 
Greece 

Position 8R. Shepherds bringing their lambs to 
market, Nauplia 

What two contrasting land surface forms in 
Greece? Which seems more extensive? Confirm 
your opinion by reference to a relief map. Describe 
a typical Greek river of the interior. (Position 5R.) 
Most flow into bay heads, as seen from Position 2R. 
What land form are they building there? How 
does the surface of Greece account for its division 



ATHENS 205 

into many small states, like Sparta and Attica, in 
early times? What climate do you infer from the 
vegetation? What is the characteristic occupation 
of the interior? How do surface and climate favor 
it? Where is agriculture more common, as shown 
by checkered crops and tilled fields? 

Describe the ruins you see. What do you infer as 
to the prosperity and population of Greece when they 
were built ? Contrast the towns of Greece with those 
near your home. Describe a town house and its sur- 
roundings. Picture a Grecian shepherd and some 
scenes in his life. Describe a market day in Greece, 
and compare it with market scenes in Ireland. 

Athens 

Where is the capital of Greece? Why so 
famous a city? You are to take seven Positions 
there. Like any traveler, get Baedeker's handbook 
and study its maps to ascertain what you will see 
from each Position. 

Position gR. Looking northeast from height above 

Piraeus to Athens and the Pentelikon Mts. 
Position 10R, Twentieth - century shipping at 

Piraeus, Athens' seaport centuries ago, northeast 
Position 11R. Athens and its Acropolis, southwest 

to Piraeus, the seaport, from Lykabettos 
Position 12R. The storied Acropolis crowned by the 

Parthenon (Theseion at base), southeast from 

railway, Athens 
Position 13R. " P^arth proudly wears the Parthenon 

as the best gem upon her zone" — west- southwest 

to east end 
Position 14R. Prom west wall of Parthenon over 

modern city, east-northeast, to Lykabettos and 

Pentelikon 
Position 15R. Looking over the Academy to Lyka- 
bettos and Prog's Mouth — best residence section 

in Athens 



206 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Compare the landscape presented from the dif- 
ferent standpoints, identifying at each Position 
places previously seen or occupied; thus compare 
the mountain background as seen from Positions 
9R, 10R, and 14R; and locate your standpoints in 
Positions 9R, 10R, 13R, 14R, and 15R, as seen 
from Position 11R. 

Describe the situation of Athens, and the sur- 
rounding land and coastal forms. Why should the 
early city, built in times of primitive warfare and 
piracy, have clustered about the Acropolis, at a dis- 
tance from both mountains and seashore? Is the 
land generally productive? What relation had the 
olive groves on the river plain (Position 9R) to the 
city's location and early prosperity? What two 
values, or uses, have the near bays of the Aegean 
Sea for the city today? (Positions 9R and 10R.) 
Contrast the vessels near you, at the Piraeus, with 
those at the farther docks, as to character and use. 
Which denotes Athens a commercial center, and 
which the capital of Greece? 

Where is the Parthenon? Describe the temple; 
the material used, the plan of the building, its 
pillars and Avails. Does its condition indicate peace 
or war, prosperity or misgovernment, in Greece dur- 
ing recent centuries? Study the Academy and its 
surroundings, and tell how you think the Parthe- 
non and Acropolis once looked. Where have you 
seen porticoes or pillars in the Doric or Ionic styles 
of architecture before? 

Why do many tourists visit Athens? Why is it 
an important and growing city today? 



AFRICA 

EGYPT 

Introduction. In what continent is Egypt? 
Find its location upon the hand globe. What 
is its position in relation to the countries of 
Europe and to ourselves? What ancient works 
of man make Egypt famous? Near what city are 
they located? Find the situation of the city and of 
the monuments upon a map of Egypt. What river 
is closely related to the life of the Egyptians ? How ? 
What occupation do most of the people living in this 
valley follow? 

The People, the Monuments, and the Desert 

Turn to the map of Cairo and Environs 
in this book. Find our first Position. Note 
in which direction we shall look and tell on 
which hand Cairo will be, what kind of 
land will stretch away on the other side, what will 
be behind us and what great body of water miles 
away in front. 

Position i. Ruins of the granite Temple by the 
Sphinx, with the great Pyramid of Gizeh at the 
noithwest 

(a) Think of the situation of the places you 
have just located with reference to our posi- 
tion here. What have these Arabs brought 
us out here to see? Which structure appeals to you 
most in magnitude ? in mystery ? as a relic of ancient 
civilization ? What interests you most in this scene ? 




Copyright* 1907, by Underwood & Underwood 

Patented U.S.A., August 21, 1900. I 

Patented Frame. March 26,1900, S, G< 0, 0, 



Patented Great Britain, March 22 , 1300 
SmUenland, d^2 Patent Nr. SI,«U. 



EGYPT — THE FYRAMIDS 209 

What is absent from this landscape that you are ac- 
customed to see in most countries? 

(b) Describe the dress and head covering of 
the Arabs. In what other way do they differ from 
ourselves? Upon what method of travel do they 
depend ? Why ? What characteristic weapon of the 
desert tribes do the nearer men carry? How does 
it differ from the American firearms? 

We are now to climb to the top of that Great 
Pyramid, and shall look southwest or off to our left. 
Find this second Position on the map. 

Position 2. The Second Pyramid with crown of 
original casing masonry, southwest from summit 
of Great Pyramid 

(a) Why have we climbed up here? Toward 
what part of the great continent of Africa are we 
looking? What area stretches away before us as 
far as the eye can see? What city is behind us? 
What sea far away to the right? In which direc- 
tion must we look to find the Nile? With your 
eyes closed try to recall this wonderful view. 

(b) Why call this region a desert? How far 
does it seem to extend? Why do some portions 
appear dark? What about this desert reminds you 
of the ocean? What force moulds the surface of 
both the waters and the sands ? As you look across 
the desert what dangers to the traveler upon this 
trackless waste suggest themselves? 

Still keeping our Position on the top of this Great 
Pyramid we shall turn around and look directly 
east. See the map. 



210 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 3. Prom, the summit of the Great Pyramid 
east over the valley of the Nile 

(a) In which direction does Cairo lie? the Nile? 
What helps to break the monotony of this very level 
land? What reason is there for believing that this 
plain is fertile? Can you see any cultivated fields? 
What is located at the foot of this pyramid, just 
beyond the sandy or desert area? Where do you 
see other places similar to this ? How does the pres- 
ence of these places help to answer the question in 
regard to the fertility of the land? 

(b) What do you infer that light streak in the 
distance to be? How far away is it (map) ? How 
does the land beyond it differ in height from the 
plain before us ? How does the ground upon which 
this pyramid is built compare in altitude with that 
of the village below? What is the relation of the 
plain, then, to the general level of the surrounding 
country? What happens to this land when the 
Nile overflows its banks ? Is that event a misfortune 
or a blessing? Why? 

Summary. What works of man do you associate 
with the desert near Cairo ? What was your feeling 
when you first beheld these objects? How did the 
desert impress you? With what did you naturally 
compare it? 

What kind of people make a living in serving 
tourists who visit the ancient monuments? How 
are they dressed and how do their features differ 
from ours? 

Compare the view southwest from the Great 
Pyramid with the outlook towards the east. In 



THE SPHINX AND THE PYRAMIDS 211 

what respects are they both alike and what are the 
most important contrasts? What effect would an 
abundant supply of moisture have upon the ap- 
pearance of the desert? 

What is the relation of the Nile valley to the gen- 
eral level of the land? Where are the pyramids 
built in relation to the Nile flood plain? 

The Sphinx and the Pyramids 

Let us return now to Position i for a careful ex- 
amination of these wonderful monuments. Find our 
standpoint on the map. 

Return to Position i. Ruins of the granite Temple 
by the Sphinx, with the great Pyramid of Gizeh 
at the northwest 

(a) Study the Great Pyramid: how many sides 
do you think it has? What is the shape of each 
side? What do you infer the shape of the base to 
be? Draw the pyramid as you see it and make a 

.connected verbal description from the answers to 
the questions just asked. 

The sides of the pyramid correspond in position 
to the cardinal directions. Recall our point of view 
(map) and tell which sides you can see. 

(b) How do those people in the distance com- 
pare in size with the pyramids? What does this 
tell you about the scale upon which this monument 
is constructed? In this connection describe again 
your feeling in looking from the top of this pyramid 
to the ground. From what you observed at that 
time concerning the construction of the pyramid 
and from what you can see from this standpoint in- 



212 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

fer of what the pyramid is built. (For what pur- 
pose were the pyramids constructed?) 

(c) Describe the appearance of the Sphinx. What 
does it represent? In which direction does it face? 
Think how long a time it has watched over the des- 
tinies of Egypt and what wonderful scenes have 
passed before those ever open eyes ! What questions 
would you like to whisper in its massive ear? 

Of what is the limestone from which the Sphinx 
is carved made up? That structure is characteristic 
of the ledges along the Nile. 

We will now go again to the top of that Great 
Pyramid (Position 2) and look southwest, for the 
purpose of finding out something about the plan 
upon which the pyramids are built. 

Return to Position 2. The Second Pyramid with 
crown of original casing masonry, southwest 
from summit of the Great Pyramid 

(a) Look down: how does the thought of losing 
your balance make you feel? Of what are the steps 
up which people climb here formed ? The nearer man 
stands on the one next to the top : about how high is 
it ? The pyramid off to our right is known as the Sec- 
ond Pyramid. Why is the ascent of this pyramid on 
which we stand safer and easier than that of the 
Second? How does the Second Pyramid seem to 
compare with this in height? (Find out which is 
actually the higher.) 

(b) What detestable habit, too common in our 
own country, finds illustration upon the flat surface 
of the topmost stone, just here at our left? What 
do you infer from this fact concerning the hard- 



THE PYRAMIDS 213 

ness of these blocks ? The Second Pyramid is built of 
blocks of similar size and shape: what makes you 
think it must be a long way off. Why are distances 
here so deceiving? How does the apex differ in 
appearance from the lower part? Originally the 
steps formed by the blocks of which these two pyra- 
mids are constructed were rilled in evenly by slabs 
of granite and limestone. 

(c) In what part of this scene do you see a 
smaller pyramid? From what other standpoint did 
you also see one of these lesser structures? In all, 
there are ten of these monuments in this locality. 
For what purpose were they erected ? 

Where the wind has blown the sand away note 
what forms the foundation for the Second Pyramid : 
describe. What do you think of the amount of labor 
and materials required to build these monuments? 

Summary. Describe the form and structure of 
the Pyramids. Illustrate your description by a 
sketch showing a distant view of one of them with 
something of its surroundings. Make also a sketch of 
a nearer view showing a portion of one side or edge. 

For what purpose were the Pyramids intended? 
Express what you have thought or read about the 
magnitude of the undertaking. What do you think 
concerning the relation of the cost of labor and ma- 
terials to the benefits conferred upon the people? 
Could the time and stone have been used for a bet- 
ter purpose ? Where in the Bible is there an account 
of the labors of slave workmen in Egypt? 

Write a story describing how the Sphinx im- 
pressed you, as you tried to discover what it repre- 



214 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

sented, and as you thought of the great length of 
time it had watched over the destinies of Egypt. 

Cairo 

Introduction. Where is Cairo in relation to the 
Nile valley and to the delta? Why is this situation 
an important one? Where is Alexandria? 

By whom is Egypt governed? Where does he 
live? To what religion do most of the people be- 
long? By what name are their places of worship 
known ? 

We are now to take our stand upon the Citadel 
on the southeast side of Cairo and look northwest 
across the widest part of the city. Find this Posi- 
tion 4 on the map. 

Position 4. Cairo, home of the Arabian Nights, 
greatest city of Africa, northwest from Saladin's 
Citadel to Nile 

What impression do you get from this stand- 
point concerning the size of Cairo ? Where is Alex- 
andria as we stand? the Nile delta? the Pyramids? 
the desert? 

Describe the surface of the country upon which 
the greater part of the city is built. Recall the situa- 
tion of Cairo in relation to the river and infer how 
this land was probably formed. 

For what is that building directly in front of us 
used? What are the features by which you recog- 
nize its character? There are about four hundred 
buildings of this kind in Cairo : what evidence do 
you see of them from here? 



CAIRO 215 

(What is the Citadel ? For what was it intended ? 
For what is it used?) 

Our next Position (5) will be on the northeast 
side of the city or to the right of our last Position. 
We shall look southwest. Locate our position upon 
the map and note in which direction the delta lies 
and where Alexandria is. 

Position 5. Cairo, looking southwest across city 
to Pyramids that furnished stone for many of its 
buildings 

What distant objects do you perceive faintly de- 
scribed upon the horizon? They are ten miles 
away. What evidence do you see in the distance 
of the edge of the plateau beneath which the Nile 
has cut its valley ? 

What architectural features rise prominently 
above the roofs of the buildings ? Of what kind of 
buildings do they mark the location ? What kind of 
roofs have most of the houses visible from this Posi- 
tion? What do you -infer from this about the 
amount of rainfall in Cairo? 

We move now to the southeast side of Cairo 
again and look up towards the Citadel, on which we 
stood first (Position 4) in Cairo. 

Position 6. Citadel and Mohammed AH Mosque be~ 
yond Bab-el-Wezir Cemetery , at feast of Bairam, 
Cairo 

Describe the situation of the Citadel. Why 
was this site selected for a fortified palace? What 
imposing structure helps to make this spot the most 
prominent landmark of the city? By what char- 



216 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

acteristic features would you recognize this build- 
ing from another point of view ? 

Describe what you see in the foreground. 

We shall go down into a typical street now and 
see the people of Cairo at close range. 

Position 7. A crowded street in Cairo 

What seems to you to be the most striking and 
remarkable thing about this street in Cairo? How 
do the people differ in complexion and dress from 
a crowd in an American city? What would be the 
difficulty in driving a vehicle through these streets? 
A runner, who goes before the carriage to clear 
the way, is necessary in the most frequented streets. 
How do the people in the crowd below carry baskets 
and trays? Notice the candy pedler at the left. 

What relation does the second story of the build- 
ing yonder bear to the street below? This is com- 
mon in Cairo. Describe the appearance of the awn- 
ings just in front of us. Find others along the 
street. Of what advantage are they to the foot- 
travelers ? 

Summary. Prepare to tell your people at home 
about your visit to Cairo. Make a list of the import- 
ant things to be described and be ready to talk about 
them. 

Irrigation 

Introduction. Describe the course of the 
Nile. Compare the climate of its headwater 
regions with that of its lower parts. What sea- 
sonal changes occur at its sources? What variations in 
the volume of the lower Nile occur in consequence? 



IRRIGATION IN EGYPT 217 

What contrast would be seen in the appearance of 
the flood plain at opposite seasons? What would 
Egypt be without this river? 

Recall the appearance of the Nile valley as seen 
from the summit of the Great Pyramid looking 
east. How did it differ most remarkably from the 
desert? How is the flood plain kept fertile when 
the water in the river is low? 

Find Assouan. (Text book map.) What char- 
acteristic of the river's flow at this point is noted on 
the map? What remarkable product of engineering 
skill is located at Assouan? 

In the Position now about to be taken we shall 
be sitting in a boat upon the Nile River. 

Position 8. An Egyptian shaduf lifting water on the 
Upper Nile 

(a) Describe the height and slope of the river 
bank here. Why does this make irrigation neces- 
sary and more difficult? Does the exposed surface 
look as if rainfall were frequent or plentiful? Ex- 
plain. 

Why should these men work so hard in the hot 
sun to raise water to the ditch above? If we should 
follow this ditch away from the river, to what would 
it lead us ? What do you see growing upon the field 
above ? 

(b) Study more carefully these machines for 
raising water. How do they compare with the old- 
fashioned American well-sweep? Note the. heavy 
balls of clay. Do the men seem to pull down or lift 
up? Explain. Tell step by step just how the water 



218 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

is raised from the river into the cisterns on the bank 
and finally into the ditch. 

(c) These men are Egyptian fellahin — peasantry 
descended from the toilers who built the pyramids. 
How are they dressed ? Why is this costume appro- 
priate ? 

Is labor costly where a planter can afford to raise 
water like this? If demand for labor increases its 
cost what will be a cheaper way than this? What 
power for raising water and moving machinery is 
used in America? Why? What adjective will best 
describe the appearance and construction of the 
shaduf ? 

At our next standpoint we are brought face to face 
with the scientific solution of the great problem of 
irrigation in Egypt. Recall again the location of 
Assouan. 

Position g. The great Dam across the Nile at As- 
souan, Egypt 

(a) At this part of the Nile the bed of the river is 
steeply sloping and is composed of irregular ledges 
of rock : what would be the character of the river's 
flow here? Where is the bed of the river in com- 
parison with the level of the surrounding land? Is 
the valley wide or narrow here? For what will the 
valley sides serve when the dam is completed ? Give 
some reasons why this place was selected for dam- 
ming the Nile. 

(b) Of what material is the dam constructed? 
It was obtained from quarries near at hand. How 
are the blocks raised in place? Compare the effec- 
tiveness and despatch of this way of performing 
heavy labor with the methods of working the shaduf. 



IRRIGATION IN EGYPT 219 

This dam is more than a mile in length. The top 
is wide enough to serve as a roadway : of what ad- 
vantage is that ? What do you think about the mag- 
nitude of this work and the skill required to ac- 
complish it successfully? With what examples of 
engineering skill of ancient times does it compare? 

(c) Which side of the dam, downstream or up- 
stream side, is seen from this standpoint? In which 
direction does the wall of masonry slope? Why? 
(During time of flood to what use will the basin be- 
hind the clam be put?) What provision is made in 
the wall for the escape of the water downstream ? 

What effect will this have upon the regularity of 
the water supply? Upon the amount o<f land that 
can be cultivated? Upon the population? Upon 
wealth and taxes ? 

Summary. Be able to talk about irrigation in 
Egypt according to the following outline, viz. : ( i ) 
Name the conditions which make irrigation neces- 
sary. (2) Describe the workings of the shaduf. (3) 
Tell about the dam at Assouan — what it is, its pur- 
pose and what this plan means to Egypt. 

In what part of the United States is irrigation 
practised? What methods are used for obtaining 
a supply of water when surface drainage is absent ? 
What plan is being adopted for the storage of water 
among the hills? 

What rivers of the United States resemble the 
Nile in climatic contrasts between the source and 
mouth? Why are not the waters of the Mississippi 
raised to irrigate its flood plain? 



220 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 

The Bedouins 

Introduction. Locate the Libyan desert (text 
book map). Of what greater desert is it a 
part (text book map) ? To what extent is 
this region suitable for human habitation ? Why do 
the dwellers upon the desert find a wandering life 
necessary ? 

We shall now go to this Libyan desert and make 
our first acquaintance with a Bedouin encampment. 

Position iR. A Bedouin village, on the Libyan 
Desert, Africa 

(a) What prominent features of the landscape 
enable you to tell at once about where we are ? How 
do you distinguish between them? Recall our for- 
mer standpoints and tell in which direction we are 
now looking. How do the sun's shadows help you 
to verify your conclusions? 

In which direction is the Nile from here? Cairo? 
The Mediterranean Sea? Where is the Great 
Sahara ? 

(b) Look at this group of Bedouins. How do 
they differ most remarkably from ourselves? What 
animal serves to carry them and their belongings 
from place to place? Why are the men armed 
with those long rifles ? What is that young woman 
carrying on her head? What must there be not 
far away? Give one reason why this place was 
selected as a camping ground. 

(c) What opportunity does there appear to be 
here for pasturing the animals? Is this place, then. 



BEDOUIN LIFE 221 

suitable or not for a permanent home? What do 
you see at the corner of the tent in line with the 
saddle of the nearer camel? For what is it to be 
used? Far to the right of the scene note the vil- 
lage in the midst of some trees : why does vegeta- 
tion grow there and not here? 

(d) In what respect are these tents alike? 
Make a simple sketch of one. How do they differ 
from those we are accustomed to see? 

Why is a low tent better on the desert than a 
high one? These tents are woven from the hair 
of the camel or goat : why ? The fabric is frequently 
colored dark orange with a deep red stripe. Is this 
stripe characteristic of these tents? Why are tents 
of this material and color more serviceable upon the 
desert than white cotton ones ? 

(e) Describe the camel. What are its most 
peculiar and striking features? How high is the 
saddle (compare with the height of a man) ? Note 
the position of the nearer camel and infer how the 
rider mounts. How does the white-gowned 
Bedouin sit in the saddle? What decorations do 
you notice upon the camel? Why is this animal 
especially useful in desert travel? 

(f) Review the different things to which your 
attention has been called in the preceding para- 
graphs. Make a list of the principal features that 
are peculiar to the desert life and its surroundings. 

Summary. Describe the method of living, dress, 
complexion, weapons, and utensils of the Bedouins. 
Tell also about the camels — their general appear- 
ance and usefulness; the tents — shape (sketch), 



222 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

height, colors, of what made and why. Describe 
the distant view of the pyramids. 

The Nile River — Water Supply and Naviga- 
tion 

Introduction and Map Study. Locate Cairo 
(text book map). Into how many principal chan- 
nels does the river divide below the city? What is 
the area included between the two outer branches 
called? What opportunity do the numerous smaller 
streams within this portion offer for increasing the 
fertility of the soil? To what place will the prod- 
ucts of this area be sent for sale? By what two 
methods will they be transported? Supplies are 
also brought down the river: how? 

Where is most of the population of Egypt located 
in relation to the Nile? Why is the river, then, of 
especial importance as a means of transporting 
commodities and as a highway of travel? 

You will view the Nile River and the life upon 
its waters and along its shores from the three fol- 
lowing Positions: 

Position 2R. Boats along the Nile 

Position 3R. Market boats of old Cairo 

Position 4R. The great Nile Bridge at Cairo open for 
the passage of the daily fLeet of cargo boats 
(northeast) 

(a) Describe the type of boat peculiar to the 
Nile. What kind of a sail do they carry? Make a 
drawing of one. Describe the height of the mast 
in comparison with the length of the sail. Are 



LIFE ALONG THE NILE 223 

the boats decked over or open? Why? For what 
purpose are they used? 

(b) Study the people along the banks of the 
river and in the boats. What are some of them 
doing? What characteristic costume have you be- 
gun to associate with the Egyptian? What is that 
woman balancing on her head (Position 3R) ? 
What do you suppose it contains? What are the 
four men (Position 2R) carrying on their backs? 
With what are they filled? Where are they taking 
it? Why? Make comparisons with the way we 
are supplied. 

Describe the bridge that crosses the Nile at Cairo 
(Position 4R). 



CENTRAL AFRICA 

Introduction. What race has its home in Af- 
rica? How do representatives of this race happen 
to be numerous in America? What is the state of 
civilization of the race in Central Africa? What 
advancement is it making in America? What is 
being done to and for the race in Africa now ? 

Between what latitudes is Central Africa? What 
then should be its climate with respect to tempera- 
tures? As regards rainfall? Seasons? What veg- 
etation should be characteristic? What degree of 
native civilization is to be expected therefore ? 

Life in Central Africa 

You are now to visit the Congo Free State to see 
the people about their homes and at work. This will 
enable you to satisfy yourself as to many of the 
questions raised in the introductory lesson. Find 
the Congo river on a map. The Positions taken are 
along its middle and lower course. You will first 
stand where a forest path enters and overlook a new 
native village in a clearing. 

Position x. Tummn village and people in a forest- 
clearing near Yakusu, Congo Free State 

What name fits these houses? Have you ever 
tried to build any somewhat like them in play? To 
what extent does the character of the clearing sug- 
gest reliance upon agriculture for food? What stage 
of civilization finds illustration here? 



LIFE IN CENTRAL AFRICA 225 

Notice the houses and especially the unfinished 
one near us. Of what materials are they made? 
How are these put together? How are the roofs 
made? What tools would be necessary? Search for 
the logs where a few white ashes show the remains 
of fires. Why not fires in the houses? How high 
are these houses? What shelter do they afford? 
What uses do you judge they serve? What climate 
do they indicate ? What does the vegetation suggest 
as to the climate? 

After the class work is over, take four more Positions in 
negro towns, when leisure allows, that you may more thor 
oughly observe the types of houses common along the Congo 
and note their structure. In the light of these further ob- 
servations supplement your previous answers. 

Position za. Tying poles together with vines, making 

frames for new houses, Basoko, Congo Free State 
Position ib. Bangala homes in a line beside Congo River, 

near Nonvelle Anvers 
Position zc. Conical huts of clay and thatch in a Yambuya 

village 
Position id. Ndombe, chief of a tribe of 100,000, with part 

of his family 

You are now to step into the workroom of a negro 
craftsman in an older town. 

Position 2. Upoto blacksmith at his anvil helper 

blowing bellows, Congo Free State 

What is this workman making? What tools is 
he using? What is the boy doing to help him? 
Compare the appliances (anvil, hammer, forge, bel- 
lows, etc.) with those of a smith or machine shop 
in your home town. 

Why is the bellows double? How are the tools orna- 
mented? What does this suggest as to the value placed upon 
them? 

What adjectives best describe the stature and phy- 



226 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

sique of the smith ? How do his features differ from 
those of the white race? How are he and his bel- 
lows-boy dressed? Glancing out from under this 
shelter what do you infer concerning the tempera- 
ture of the air, and the cause? Why is only a roof 
needed? What must be true of the prevailing con- 
dition of the atmosphere? 

Does this scene indicate a lower or higher state 
of civilization than that you inferred from observa- 
tion of the new village in the forest clearing ? Great- 
er or less advancement than that of American abo- 
rigines — Indians ? 

When other work permits, take four other Positions to 
observe the negroes plying other native crafts. Consider 
the questions asked above as to crafts and tools, houses and 
clothing, race and civilization. 

Position 2a. Vpoto man making fish net for use in the 
Congo River, Congo Free State 

Position 2b. Canoes at Yakusu near head of Congo steamer- 
navigation 

Position 2c. Basoko woman making pottery in a village 
near the Congo 

Position 2d. Basoko women planting sweet potatoes beside 
a branch of the Congo 

Your third Position is on a plantation where you 
may note something of the results of the govern- 
ment of the country by Europeans. 

Position 3, Women laborers in a banana field. State 
Plantation, Irebu Camp 

What are these women doing? What is growing 
in rows on this great field? Does this scene sug- 
gest the agriculture of civilization or that of savage 
life? Compare the dress of these negroes with that 
of those seen in towns just visited. How do you 
account for the change? Who is directing the work 



LIFE IN CENTRAL AFRICA 227 

of this force of laborers? How much education is 
necessary to fit natives for such work under an over- 
seer? Compare the scene with what you have read 
of field-work on a plantation of our southern states 
before the Civil War. 

What vegetation does this banana plantation re- 
place? What appears to be true as to the depth and 
character of the soil ? It is typical of the soil of the 
tropics. What kind of trees are the two left stand- 
ing in the field? Another overtops surrounding 
forest trees in the distance. Compare them in their 
manner of growth — branching, leaves, etc. — with 
the common trees of your vicinity. Compare them 
with banana trees. 

When work permits, take three supplementary Positions to 
study another phase of the changes being wrought in Africa 
by contact with white folks. 

Position 3a. Prayer-service at mission schoolhouse 
M'binza, near Leopoldville, Congo Free State 

Position sb. Outdoor class in mission boarding school at 
Wathen 

Position 3c. Bangala people at a Catholic mission, Nouvelle 
Anvers 

Your fourth Position in Africa with your class- 
mates is to be at a main station of the Congo Free 
State Government, where characteristic products 
are being taken to a river steamer for export. 

Position 4, Carrying rubber and ivory to a river- 
steamer at Basoko, Congo Free State 

The great wicker cases contain rubber. What 

else have the negro porters on their shoulders ? How 

are such burdens taken to wharves in America? 

What do you judge true as to cost of labor here? 

And as to roads and vehicles? In what respects is 

this scene like that last visited? 



228 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

What purpose are the battlemented tower and 
walls built to serve? Contrast these buildings with 
those of native shacks. Explain. Notice the natives 
under the shade trees and besides the cases of rub- 
ber : what are they carrying ? How do you think 
government of the negroes by whites is maintained 
in this region? Compare the relation of races in 
Africa with relations between European colonists 
and Indians in America, noting likenesses and dif- 
ferences. 

At a later time take four other Positions, to study further 
the relations of subjects and rulers in the Congo State. 

Position 4a. Bringing to a trading post crude rubber rolled 

into balls, Djoko Punda, Congo Free State 
Position 4b. Native soldiers drilling for State service, 

Irebu Camp 
Position 4c. Rations of dried fish and cassava bread ready 

for Basoko workmen 
Position 4d. Market near Wathen with Bakongo venders 

and frequenters 

Supplementary Reading. You will wish to 
know more of life on the Congo than you have yet 
seen. The stories of the explorers who penetrated 
the forests and first encountered the tribes along the 
Congo are romantic and intensely interesting. Every 
public library contains books that tell the adven- 
tures of Livingstone and Stanley and of their suc- 
cessors. Most of them are freely illustrated. The 
tales of the French explorer, Du Chaillu, have de- 
lighted boys for years. Poole's Index will refer 
you to many illustrated articles about the Congo 
region in the standard magazines. Carpen- 
ter's geographical reader on Africa contains several 
admirable chapters, presenting negro life under pres- 
ent conditions. Another reader, Life in 'Africa, of 



LIFE IN CENTRAL AFRICA 229 

the series on The World and Its People, gives 
condensed information on the important topics. Fi- 
nally the daily papers, the current magazines and 
missionary periodicals have much to say about the 
government maintained over the natives by the Bel- 
gians. 

Comparisons. Compare the homes of Congo 
negroes with those of other folk you have visited; 
for example, Egyptian Arabs, Korean peasants, Irish 
country folk, and also with your own home. Show 
how the materials used and the character of the 
home vary with the climate, with the building mater- 
ials at hand, and with the civilization of the builders, 
as it affects both their requirements for a home and 
their power to fashion materials to serve their pur- 
poses nicely. 

Compare the dress of the natives with that of 
other primitive folk you have seen. Show how cli- 
mate, the degree of native culture as a race, and the 
amount of contact with other peoples influence dress. 
Compare the rude arts of Congo tribes with the 
fine handicraft of Eurasia, and also with the indus- 
trial methods of the nations who supply cloth, arms 
and other factory products to the tropics. Compare 
the relations of the white race to Congo negroes 
with their relations to the Japanese, to the races of 
India, to the Filipinos, and to Indians. How do 
you account for the contrasts? For example, why 
should not the white race displace the natives of the 
Congo as it did those of the Mississippi basin ? 



230 geography through the stereoscope 

The Congo River 

Introduction. Congo negroes present a marked 
contrast to the various civilized and half civilized 
peoples of tropical Asia. The early exploration of 
North America is in marked contrast, also, to the 
long delayed penetration of the forests and savannas 
of the Dark Continent. Climatic differences partial- 
ly account for unlike life effects, but differences in 
relief and drainage are also responsible. 

Turn to a relief map of Africa : what part of the 
Congo basin is highland? What part lowland? 
Where are there mountain ranges? What effect 
have they upon the form of the basin and river sys- 
tem ? Several Positions in the field will now enable 
you to observe the character of >the Congo basin and 
the consequent value of the river for travel and trans- 
portation. 

Your first Position is to be on a typical roadway 
and transportation route of the Congo forest dis- 
tricts. 

Position 5. Forest-trail in the heart of Africa, be- 
tween Stanley and Tchopo Falls, Congo Free State 

Whom have we met here ? How are burdens car- 
ried over this road ? Consider why. Is there much 
travel over this trail? Describe the grades, and 
the roadbed. What kind of bridge do you judge 
crosses the brook in the gully below? What adjec- 
tives best describe the vegetation through which our 
way passes? Briefly describe the trees, the under- 
growth, and — look sharply — the vines. 



THE CONGO RIVER 231 

Would it be easy or costly to build here such a road 
as that you travel to school? Does this kind of 
roadway imply much or little trade and communica- 
tion between tribes and with the outer world? What 
is one reason that tropical Africa was long an un- 
known region and is now but partly explored ? 

Three further Positions for study of the vegetation and 
trails of Congo forests and savannas may be taken inde- 
pendently by all pupils who can find time. Tell the class 
about the tall grasses that cover much territory. Describe a 
much-traveled trail. 

Position 5a. Bridge of poles on trail at Yambuya, head of 
Aruiwima navigation, Congo Free State 

Position 5b. Thysville, summit station of the Congo Rail- 
way, a center for Europeans 

Position so. Trail through grass-land, and village of conical 
huts, near Yambuya 

You are now to take a Position before a group of 
native porters who are about to start out over a 
trail. 

Position 6. A travelers' supply-caravan ready to start 
from Mount Washington, Congo Free State 

How are goods carried over African trails? In 
what different ways do the porters manage par- 
cels? Notice the two bearers at the left and rear: 
how are "passengers" carried? In what other coun- 
tries are people carried in a somewhat similar way? 
Notice the young man at your left, dressed in white 
— what is he carrying, slung from his shoulder? 
What need of such protection on the forest trails? 
Consider again questions asked previously about the 
physique, features and dress of the natives. 

What kind of goods can be profitably transported 
in this manner, cheap and bulky, or relatively light 
and costly? What are the staples of African com- 



232 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

merce in consequence? Will such transportation to 
a distance add much or little to the final cost of the 
goods? To be practicable, does it imply high or 
low wages for the porters? Early American pio- 
neers in forest districts often used this mode of trans- 
porting goods at first : what would be the effect upon 
our industries and life if all other means of travel 
and transport had to be abandoned in America now ? 
What will be the effect of introducing better means 
of transportation into any district of Central Africa ? 

If time allows take a supplementary Position to study the 
African porters of another caravan. 

Position 6a. Women carrying travelers' luggage around 
rapids, below Ponthierville, Congo Free State 

The Congo is nature's highway through much of 
tropical Africa. You are now to take Positions to 
study it in its relation to transportation. First you 
are to stand beside the port-rail of an ocean steamer 
as it plows its way up the great river to Boma. 

Position 7. Looking up the lower Congo below Boma 
—Fetich Rock at left— Congo Free State 

What ocean lies behind you now ? On which hand 
is the equator? Can you descry the river bank be- 
yond the island ? What unit of measurement would 
naturally be used to state the width of the Congo 
here ? 

What is the height of the land along the lower 
Congo? What appears to be the surface form? 
How does this scene compare with that from a 
steamer approaching Wilmington, Delaware, or any 
similar Atlantic port south of New York? What 



THE CONGO RIVER 233 

must have been the hope of early voyagers who sailed 
up this broad waterway ? 

During some free period take two supplementary Positions 
on the lower Congo. Locate them on a map. You can then 
state the character, width and vegetation of the coastal plain, 
and the appearance of the seaports there. - 

Position 7a. Government House and trading post at month 

of the Congo, Banana Point 
Position 7b. Boma, Capital of Congo Free State, on bank of 

the lower Congo River 

Your next Positions are to be still further up the 
Congo. You will look out upon scenes characteristic 
of its course through the mountain ranges shown on 
the map. 

Position 8. Mission stations on the picturesque Con- 
go river bank at Underhill 

Position g. Cataracts of the Congo river closing 
navigation below I<eopoldville 

What surface features enclose the river at Under- 
hill ? How wide do you estimate the river to be at 
this point? Contrast the valley form with that ob- 
served below Boma. What name rightly applies to 
the Congo valley above Underhill? 

From your second Position notice the surface of 
the water in midstream. Contrast it with the river 
surface at Boma and Underhill. What must be true 
of the slope of the river bed here? What do these 
water-worn boulders show the river to be doing with 
all the finer material? What effect have these cat- 
aracts upon the value of the Congo for commerce? 
What relation to delayed exploration of its basin? 

What other great rivers of the world have cut 
gorges through highlands that lie across their 
course? Why has the Hudson river, in contrast to 



234 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

the Congo, a deep waterway through the highlands? 
What European rivers have had channels cleared, 
or canals with locks built around rapids, in their 
gorges, to enable continuous navigation ? Why has 
not this been done in Africa? 

You proceed now to the most important river port, 
Leopoldville, which you have already located on the 
map. 

Position 10. leopoldville on Stanley Pool, most im- 
portant trade center of the Congo Free State 

You are now beyond the coastal plain, over the 
low mountains, on the border of the great interior 
Congo basin. You look eastward still. Is the river 
flowing toward you or away from you? What 
seems to be the land relief in the basin ? 

What new means of transportation impresses you 
at once here? (Why did the mountains, gorge and 
cataracts make it necessary?) What two ways of 
conveying goods in large quantities meet at Leopold- 
ville? What buildings have been erected between 
them? Why? And why a town springing up at 
our right ? Name cities of other countries that have 
grown where goods had to be transferred from one 
conveyance to another? What proportion of im- 
portant centers of population owe their origin or 
growth to this cause? 

With what are the cars before you laden? Con- 
trast the character of this freight with the burdens 
of the porters seen from Position 6. Compare the 
buildings as to materials used, size, etc., with the 
native houses. How does the railway account for 
the differences? 



THE CONGO RIVER 



235 



Two supplementary Positions, to be taken whenever you 
find convenient opportunity, enable you to observe the rail- 
way at its terminus on the lower Congo, and to see the 
character of the trains on the railways that form connecting 
links of the Congo transportation system. 

Position ioa. Matadi, on lower Congo river, southern ter- 
minus of railway, Congo Free State 

Position iob. A railway train that crosses the equator, near 
Stanley Falls 

Your last position for class study overlooks a 
steamboat landing far up the Congo. 

Position n. Congo river-steamer landing at Yasaka 
state plantation, near Basoko, Congo Free State 

Compare the steamer with an ocean steamer, or 
with steamboats used on American rivers. How is 
it propelled? How many decks? What do you 
judge to be the use of each? Why no wharf? How 
is a landing made? Is the steamer of deep or shal- 
low draught? Why? Why are piles of cordwood 
beside the landing place? What is being taken 
aboard the steamer? What method of travel and 
transport ashore is evident from the bridge over the 
tributary creek and the road where you stand? 

Does the river seem broad or narrow? There are many 
islands and channels in the middle Congo. Can you see any 
here? What vegetation characterizes the shores? Describe 
the palm just before you and contrast it with the nearer trees. 

At a later time take two other Positions and look from a 
Congo steamer at landing place scenes. Tell the class about 
the fuel used, and about the trade carried on with the natives. 
Take Position also at the head of navigation on the middle 
Congo ; locate this position on the map. 

Position iza. Wutolela Wood Post, a new river settlement 

almost on the equator, Congo Free State 
Position nb. When the river steamer touches at Za Romee— 

bargaining on the beach 
Position ixc. Fish-traps in the whirling flood of Congo 

River at Stanley Falls 

Summaries. Imagine that a year ago you left 



236 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

school for a trip up the Congo. Now you return and 
are to give the class an account of your trip. Make 
an outline of the topics you are to talk on. For ex- 
ample : 

The Lower Congo — its Shores and Ports. 

The Gorge and Cataracts. 

The Railway and its Values. 

A Mission Station and its Work. 

The Great Interior Congo Basin, etc. 

Write an account of one or several interesting 
scenes on the Congo for publication in your school 
paper. Either describe the scene viewed from the 
most interesting Position you have taken, or else 
imagine a scene that combines typical features of 
scenery and life which you have studied at different 
times, and describe this scene, ideal yet true to the 
facts. Illustrate your paper by pencil sketches of 
houses, utensils, etc. 

Prepare to take part in a class discussion of the 
causes for so long styling Africa a "Dark Conti- 
nent." Consider also the form of the Congo Free 
State, and show how the relief of the Congo basin 
and the character of the river as regards navigation 
explain the broad interior expansion of the state and 
its very narrow connection with the ocean. 



ASIA 



INDIA AND CEYLON 

Introduction and Map Study. Locate India, 
the province of Cashmere and the island of Ceylon. 
How does the number-of people to the square mile in 
India compare with the density of population in 
other parts of the world ? What nation controls or 
directs the government of India ? 

To what race do most of the Hindus belong? What 
is meant by the system of "caste"? What occupa- 
tion do most of the people in India follow? Upon 
what products do they depend principally for food? 
What is the attitude of the Hindu towards animal 
food ? What kind of goods have been imported into 
Europe from India and Ceylon since before the time 
of Columbus? 

The People and Their Surroundings 

Our first Position is to be among the wooded hills 
in the interior of far-off Ceylon. 

Position x. A rice farm amid the luxuriant hills of 
Ceylon— preparing the paddy field for planting 

This is Ceylon. Describe the general appearance 
of this paddy field in front of us. (Paddy is the 
name given to the rice before it has been husked.) 
What part of the work is now being done? Com- 
pare these conditions with those under which farm 
work is carried on at home, noting the dress of the 



238 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

workmen, the kind of animals used, and the char- 
acter of the tools employed. Why do the workmen 
dress so scantily? Would you like to work in the 
paddy fields ? Give reasons. 

Our second Position, like the first, is in the in- 
terior of Ceylon. 

Position 2. Country home with paddy field and na- 
tives harvesting rice, Ceylon 

In what ways do these people differ most re- 
markably from ourselves? Describe their head cov- 
ering. Why is protection for the head necessary? 
By watching these people what do you learn con- 
cerning the methods employed in Ceylon in har- 
vesting rice? Would you expect an American 
farmer to gather his crops in this, way? 

It is now February: what does the length of the 
sun's shadows at this time of the year tell us about 
our position upon the earth? How near are we to 
the equator here? (Map.) 

From our next standpoint (Position 3), still in 
the interior of Ceylon, we shall be able to inspect at 
close range some fine specimens of native laborers 
and to see as well the wonderful picturesque coun- 
try in which they live. 

Position 3. Charming valleys and mountains of in- 
terior Ceylon— near Kandy 

How do these people differ in dress and general 
appearance from the American farmer? What 
about them and their surroundings gives you an in- 
sight into the climate of Ceylon? For what is that 
animal, the water buffalo, used ( See Position 1 ) ? 
(Why is its flesh not used as food?) 



FARMING IN CEYLON 239 

Note the appearance of the rice field below: into 
what is it divided? Do you know what for (See 
Position i ) ? Rice grows under water. Some of 
the patches are now flooded : how can you tell ? 
From time to time the field must be drained for the 
purpose of weeding and cultivating. Why does 
that little stream that flows toward the bridge yon- 
der increase the value of this land for rice? 

Describe the appearance of the distant landscape. What 
do you judge the character of the surface and climate of Cey- 
lon to be? Describe the most distinctive features of the 
vegetation. Notice the railway and carriage road. What 
appears to be the condition of the roadway ? Of what advan- 
tage are these improvements to the people ? To provide these 
facilities required more enterprise and foresight than the 
natives possess : who do you think deserves the credit ? 

We are now to go to the province of Cashmere in 
the northernmost part of India, where we are to 
visit one of the workshops in which the famous 
shawls of Cashmere are woven. 

Position 4. Hnmble shawl-weavers at Cashmere 
patiently creating wonderful harmonies of line 
and color— India 

How would you know at once that these people 
are Asiatics? Describe them and their surround- 
ings. What does the presence of this boy tell you 
of the demand made upon children? Would you 
like to exchange places with him? Give reasons. 
The system of caste requires the child to follow the 
same occupation as his father. (What effect does 
this have upon ambition and upon the progress of 
the people?) 

Note some of the particular things by which 
this loom differs in appearance and general con- 



240 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

struction from those used in American factories. 
How does the amount ^of skill possessed by these 
humble shawl weavers compare with that which is 
required of the factory workers? Why are the 
products of these handlooms preferred to those of 
factory make? 

We are now to stand in front of one of thfe 
curious shops or bazaars in Simla, India. (Simla 
is in the eastern part of the province of the Punjab, 
which is in the northwestern part of India. ) Locate 
it upon map. 

Position 5. Wood carving and inlaying shop, Simla, 
India 

What countrymen are these workmen? How 
could you tell without reading the title? In what 
kind of work are they employed? Name some of 
the articles already finished. What seems to you 
to be the quality of the work ? Do you see any ma- 
chine tools in this shop? In what way then, are 
these pieces made? 

(Have you ever seen any inlaid work? What 
qualities of mind and hand are required to do it?) 

Whose shop is this? What number is it? How does it 
differ from the shops you are accustomed to see in size, 
lighting, general appearance and the way it opens upon the 
street? It is quite characteristic of the shops and stores in 
Eastern countries. 

In our next position we shall find ourselves at a 
goldsmith's in Kandy, Ceylon. Locate Kandy upon 
map. 

Position 6. Beautiful work from crude tools— native 
goldsmiths at work, Kandy, Ceylon 

Name and describe some of the articles which are 



WORK AND WORKERS IN INDIA 241 

displayed for our inspection. What kind of work- 
manship is required to produce these beautiful re- 
sults? The young man nearest to us is working 
at a small forge: with that tube which he presses 
to his lips he blows the fire. What does he hold in 
the other hand? For what purpose? How do the 
surroundings here differ from those in which simi- 
lar work is carried on in America? (In what ways 
are these handmade articles superior to those made 
by machinery?) 

Summary. What different kinds of work 
have you seen in progress in India and Ceylon? 
Which do you think most important? the 
most pleasurable and attractive? Of the manufac- 
tured articles which ones are held in high esteem? 
Why? (Try to find out something about the move- 
ment to encourage the revival of handmade articles 
in our country.) 

Describe the people whom you have seen, noting 
their complexions, features and costumes. The great 
majority of people in India are farmers. The weav- 
ing of rugs and shawls and delicate work like wood- 
carving and the fashioning of precious metals afford 
occupation for some. Most of the people are very 
poor: what relation is there between this fact and 
the density of population? What is meant by caste 
(see text in geography book) and how does this tend 
to crush out ambition and to keep the people poor ? 

Productions 

Study the cultivation of rice and tea according to 
the outline given upon pages 318-325. 



242 geography through the stereoscope 

The Himalaya Mountains and the Plains of 
Northern India 

Introduction. Find, if possible, in your text 
book or elsewhere, a map which shows something of 
the physical features of India. Locate the Himalaya 
mountains. In w T hat general direction do they ex- 
tend? What great country lies to the south? To 
the north ? How do the Himalayas compare in alti- 
tude with mountains in other parts of the world? 
Locate Mt. Everest. What rank does it hold among 
lofty peaks? See if Mt. Kinchinjanga is shown up- 
on your map : it is east of Mt. Everest. 

Review the location of Cashmere. What is the 
general character of the surface of the land in this 
province? For what is this part of India noted? 
In what part of India and upon what river is Be- 
nares? Through what kind of land does this river 
flow? Compare it with Cashmere. What is the 
general type of the surface of the triangular-shaped 
peninsula that extends southward into the Indian 
Ocean? 

We shall study the Himalaya Mountains, the 
Vale of Cashmere and the Plains of the Ganges as 
types of the surface features of India. 

You are now to look north to Mt. Kinchinjanga 
from Darjeeling, a town among the foothills of the 
Himalayas, about 8,000 feet above the plains. You 
will stand upon the crest of one of the ridges. 

Position 7. Up to the everlasting snows of Mt 
Kinchinjanga, 45 miles north from Darjeeling 

(a) What is the most striking feature of this 
scene? What country or province lies just beyond 



THE HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 243 

that wall of mountains ? Why is it difficult for you 
to realize that those peaks are nearly fifty miles 
away? How does this statement of their distance 
affect your estimate of their altitude ? 

What makes the houses immediately below seem 
so small? The word Darjeeling means "up to the 
clouds" : what evidence do you see of the appropri- 
ateness of the term? Darjeeling is much frequented 
in the hot season by the European residents of the 
lowlands : why ? 

(b) Wliat is the general appearance of the sur- 
face of the distant mountains? What is the pre- 
vailing form or outline of the peaks and ridges? 
What seems to be the degree of slope of the highest 
portions of the range? What do you think about 
the ease or difficulty of climbing those peaks? Of 
crossing the range ? What effect do lofty mountains 
like these have upon travel and transportation? 
What other mountains in the world resemble the 
Himalayas in altitude and general appearance? 

In which direction do the Himalayas extend (map) ? At 
what season do winds from the ocean rise over them? What 
effect does this lofty range have upon the moisture borne 
by the winds? Of what great advantage is this to the 
dwellers upon the lowlands? 

You are now to go to the province of Cashmere, 
to the top of a high hill overlooking a valley between 
two parallel ranges of the Himalaya Mountains. 

Position 8. An earthly paradise, the world famous 
Vale of Cashmere, watered by the winding Jhe- 
lum 

What is the most fascinating feature of this scene ? 
Describe the general appearance of the valley: its 
width, character of surface and vegetation or culture. 



244 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

What do you infer about the swiftness of the 
river's flow at this part? (What river in our own 
country does it resemble?) Is the Jhelum wearing 
away the land or depositing soil? (How do you 
explain the existence of this broad plain?) 

Upon what are we standing? On all sides the valley is 
enclosed in a similar way. How does this region differ most 
remarkably from the rest of Cashmere (recall map) ? Most 
of the land capable of cultivation is within this valley. 

For your next standpoint you will visit the region 
around Benares. 

Position g. Benares, religious center of India,north- 
east down the Ganges from minaret of Aurangzih 
Mosque 

In what direction are we looking? Across what 
kind of land? Towards what distant surface fea- 
tures of quite a different type (see map)? What 
evidence do you see here of a soil and climate fa- 
vorable for vegetation? How has the land in this 
part of India been formed? 

Describe the situation of Benares. What do you 
infer concerning the navigability of the Ganges at 
this point? What important means of travel and 
transportation is suggested by yonder bridge ? ( See 
if your map gives any information upon this point.) 

Summary. Contrast the scenery north from 
Darjeeling with what you saw along the Gan- 
ges and Jhelum rivers. What are the advantages 
and disadvantages to the people of India of this 
range of lofty mountains? Of what importance to 
the growth of India are the plains of the Ganges 
River? 

Compare the Vale of Cashmere and the plains ol 



THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA 245 

the Ganges in altitude. What effect will this dif- 
ference have upon the climate of the two places? 
Which place is best adapted for settlers from Eng- 
land? 

Religions 

Hinduism, or Brahmanism, is professed by seven- 
tenths of the people of India and is therefore the 
leading religion. Mohammedanism includes about 
a fifth of the population. The inhabitants of Ceylon 
are Buddhists. 

Read what your text book in geography says 
about these different forms of religion. 

Hinduism has sunk from the purer, higher faith 
of the early Brahmins into a most contemptible 
religion. It now includes a most astonishing num- 
ber of superstitious beliefs. Throughout the length 
and breadth of the vast empire there are countless 
shrines erected to one god or another. There are 
household gods, local gods, tribal gods and universal 
gods, and the form of worship has become idola- 
trous. 

Benares is one of the most important religious 
centers in India — the sacred center of Hinduism. 
Recall your former standpoint (Position 9). In 
what part of the country is it and on what river? 
You are about to take a Position there from which 
you can look upon one of the celebrated sights of 
the city. 

Position 10. Devout Hindus praying and bathing in 
the Holy Ganges, north to Manikarnika Ghat, Be- 
nares 

What do these towers or spires suggest concern- 



246 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

ing the character of the buildings in this locality? 
Why are they built so close to the river? What in- 
dications do you see of the former higher level of 
the water? Why are those steps built down to the 
water's edge? What are those curious things that 
look like gigantic toad-stools? Beneath them sit 
the Brahmins, or priests, who with red and white 
paints mark the bathers with the emblems of heathen 
gods or of sects and castes. What form does the 
Brahmin or Hindu worship take in this locality? 

Your next standpoint is to be within a Jainist 
temple, on Mount Abu, over 600 miles west of 
Benares. 

Position xx. Worshippers before an image in the ex- 
quisitely carved Temple of Vimala Sab, Mount 
Abu 

These ornate pillars are of white marble: with 
what feeling do they impress you? What do you 
see at the end of the aisle in which we stand? De- 
scribe it. What do you infer from its presence 
concerning the form of worship in which these peo- 
ple are engaged? Describe their attitudes. 

Note that this temple is open to the air on two sides; 
what do you infer about the prevailing climatic conditions? 
In what other ways does it differ from our houses of wor- 
ship? 

You are now to approach a scene which is char- 
acteristic of the Mohammedan religion. You are to 
look over the courtyard of a famous mosque, at 
Delhi. 

Position is. Devout Mohammedans prostrate at 
prayer time— Court of Jumma Musjid, India's 
greatest Mosque, Delhi 

What makes this scene very impressive? Note 



THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA 247 

carefully and describe the way in which these people 
kneel. What definite arrangement do you notice 
in the .way this vast congregation is placed ? To- 
wards what part of the mosque do they appear to 
be facing? (It is because Mecca, their holy city, is 
in that direction.) What do you infer about the 
devotion of the Mohammedans to the forms of their 
faith? 

Observe the open tank of water; it is used for the bathing 
which the Mohammedan religion prescribes as preparatory 
for worship. Note the doorway in that tall minaret or 
tower, opening upon the second balcony; from that exalted 
position the muezzin, or priest, summons the faithful at 
stated times to prayer. 

In the next position you will observe at close 
range some Mohammedan worshippers. 

Position 13. "There is no god but God and Mahomet 
isHis prophet"— prayers in a mosque, Ahmedabad 

Describe the different attitudes in which these 
Mohammedans offer prayer : each has some signifi- 
cance in their religion. Note that the Mohammedan 
follows the Eastern custom stated in the injunction 
— "put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place 
whereon thou standest is holy ground." What pur- 
pose do these mats then serve? What do you see 
upon the inner walls of the portico beyond? They 
are inscriptions from the Koran or Mohammedan 
bible. What relation have these open courts and 
shady porticos to the climate? Compare with the 
Christian churches and the climate of the coun- 
tries in which most of them are situated. 

Note that the worshippers of Mohammed are men; how 
does this differ from Christian churches? What do you infer 



248 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

from this concerning the privileges of women in Eastern 
religions ? 

Summary. Describe the different aspects of the 
Hindu or Brahmin and Mohammedan religions 
which you have observed. Make any comparisons 
between the two that appeal to you. 

Elephants 

Introduction. In what parts of the world is the 
elephant native ? Where have you seen any ? What 
impressions did you get concerning the animal's 
strength? Have you ever heard anything about its 
intelligence? What goes to show that elephants, 
when once tamed are docile creatures ? How does 
this affect their usefulness to man? 

You are now to go to Ceylon, where you can see 
the elephant engaged in one of his most useful 
capacities. 

Position 14. Native farming in tropical Ceylon- 
plowing a paddy £eld 

What is the most interesting feature in this scene? 
From the appearance of the laborers and the dress of 
the people yonder what do you infer concerning the 
temperature? Why is the elephant well-fitted to 
work in this climate? What quality must an ani- 
mal possess to drag a plough through this stubbly 
field ? How is the elephant harnessed to the plough ? 
Notice those men with the elephant. One rides on 
his back, another walks by his side to direct him 
along the furrow. What does the third one do? 

What soft of an instrument does the plough appear to be? 
How would you expect it to differ from an American tool? 



ELEPHANTS 249 

What other animal is frequently employed in ploughing the 
paddy field? 

Your next Position is to be in Burma, where you 
will see some elephants performing the work of men. 

Position 15, Elephants in a timber yard, hauling 
and lifting 

What kind of a place is this ? Notice the nearest 
elephant and also the one coming down the plank 
walk: what are they carrying? Describe how it is 
done. How does the harness on the second elephant 
from us differ from the others? What part of the 
work does he do? (What qualities of mind and 
body must elephants possess to do work like this?) 

Describe the way the driver is mounted. What 
does he carry in one hand ? There is a short, pointed 
hook in the end of it : what for ? 

You are now to go to Delhi, to look upon one of 
the imposing features of the celebration in honor of 
Edward VII, Emperor of India. 

Position 16. India's gorgeous princes honoring their 
Emperor — Grand State Entry, Durbar, Delhi 

To what use are these elephants being put ? What 
does their presence add to the procession? How 
have the people tried to improve the appearance of 
the elephants ? In what sort of a thing are the riders 
seated ? Where is the driver ? 

What does this scene illustrate concerning the govern- 
ment of India? 

Summary. Enumerate the purposes for which 
you have seen elephants used in India. In what 
ways are they superior to the carabao, or water 
buffalo? What have you ever heard about 



250 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

the usefulness of the elephant in hunting other ani- 
mals? What have you read concerning the devotion 
of the elephant to his master? Of its resentfulness 
of unkind treatment? How is man able to conquer 
this powerful animal? Read about "Toomai of the 
Elephants" in Kipling's Jungle Book. 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 

Capturing Wild Elephants 

Elephants are sometimes captured singly in the 
forests and sometimes they are entrapped in large 
numbers in the following way. The hunters first 
surround a large area within which one or more 
herds of elephants are thought to be located. Then 
the men gradually close in upon the animals until 
the elephants are all brought together into one group. 
The herd is now driven towards the opening of a 
large pen or stockade. Sometimes tame animals are 
trained to mingle with the wild ones and to decoy 
them into the trap. Once within the stockade there 
is no escape, but to secure each animal is a difficult 
task. Various devices are used. The most common 
way is to slip the noose of a rope around the animal's 
feet while his attention is being diverted by one or 
more of the tame elephants. 

From the first two standpoints, which are to be in 
Ceylon, you will see the preparations made for the 
reception of a herd of wild elephants. 

Position iR. Stockade before wild elephants were 
driven in, great Kraal of 1902, interior Ceylon 

Position 2R. Tame elephant breaking down timber 
in stockade after **drive in" — Kraal of 1902, Cey~ 
Ion 



CAPTURING WILD ELEPHANTS 251 

Describe the fence around the stockade: of what 
is it built? About how high is it? How are the 
parts held together ? How is it made strong enough 
to resist the great pressure from within? Note the 
appearance of the forest within the stockade: what 
is the first intimation that the wild elephants receive 
that they are in a trap? 

What are these people outside the stockade here 
for? What does their presence suggest concerning 
the frequency of an elephant hunt? What impres- 
sion do you get from these scenes concerning the 
kind of vegetation in the midst of which the ele- 
phants make their home? Why is it necessary to 
clear away the underbrush? Why is this work left 
until after the drive-in? 

From the next standpoint we shall see the baffled 
creatures when they find all avenues of escape cut 
off. 

Position 3R. Above the herd of wild elephants in- 
side the stockade— great Kraal of 1902, interior 
Ceylon 

Why are these animals huddled so close to- 
gether? What differences in size do you notice 
among them? Compare the appearance of the area 
within the stockade with what you saw from Posi- 
tions iR and 2R. How do you explain the dif- 
ference ? 

The last position will show one of the most dan- 
gerous parts of the work. 

Position 4R. In the stockade, after sixty elephants 
had **hroken out." Kraal of 1Q02, Ceylon 

Describe what is directly in front of us. What 



252 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

do you see around the creature's front left leg? 
Which are the tame elephants? How would you 
like to be mounted on one? Notice the hind feet 
of that elephant farthest away: what do you ob- 
serve? What part do those men play whom you 
see at the right in the distance? 

Summary. Prepare to tell the story of the prepa- 
ration for the capture of the wild elephants, the ap- 
pearance of the animals within the stockade and the 
method of securing them. 

Cities 

Position 5R. Clean and airy Chowringhee Road 
(Esplanade at left), looking north over Calcutta 

Position 6R. Over University and Secretariat (square 
tower), south from Rajabai Tower, Bombay 

Position 7.R. Substantial elegance of modern Mad- 
ras—imposing I,aw Court Buildings — view south- 
west from Bank 

Position 8R. Chandni Chouk, the richest street in 
the Orient (east), Delhi 

Position gR. North from Sanganir Gate up Jauhri 
Bazaar, a typical business street in prosperous 
Jeypore 

Position 10R. Looking S.W. down street of Oriental 
shops and homes to Vazir Khan Mosque, Lahore 

Find Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Delhi, Jeypore, 
and Lahore upon the map. Note the situation of 
each in relation to the coast line, river, plain or 
plateau. Infer what surface features seem to be 
most favorable for the development of cities and 
give reasons. 

Which of the cities reveal very plainly their 
Oriental character? Which of them show the ef- 
fect of British sovereignty? What evidences do 
you see of the application of western ideas? What 



CITIES OF INDIA 253 

old-world customs and slow-going methods still 
persist? What helps to make some of the streets 
and squares in Bombay and Calcutta less disagree- 
able upon a hot day ? Compare the buildings which 
you have seen in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras 
with those of Lahore, Jeypore, and Delhi in either 
style, construction or the purpose for which they are 
used. From how many of the standpoints are you 
able to make out something of the character of the 
surrounding surface features ? What impression do 
you get of the cities of India? 



CHINA 

Introduction. Locate the Chinese Empire. 
Find Pekin: for what is it important? Where is 
Tientsin? What commercial relation does it hold 
to Pekin? Locate Canton. To what race do the 
Chinese belong? How do they compare with the 
Japanese in appearance ? In industrial and commer- 
cial advancement? 

The People and Their Homes 

From the four standpoints you are about to take 
you will view different phases of Chinese life. From 
Position i in Pekin you will see some people of the 
highest rank. 

Position i. Type of the race which rules China, 
group of Manchu men, Pekin 

What indicates the rank of these people? De- 
scribe the style and material of their garments : note 
particularly the length and kind of sleeves. How' 
do their shoes differ from ours ? What do you infer 
concerning the rank of the person sitting down? 
What evidences of refinement appear in their sur- 
roundings ? 

What are some of the distinguishing characteris- 
tics of the Chinese race? 

In the next Position we obtain a privilege not 
often granted to foreigners. 

Position 2. A group of Pekinese women in the 
court of a wealthy Chinese house, Pekin 



CHINESE PEOPLE AND THEIR HOMES 255 

Describe the costume of a Chinese lady of fash- 
ion. Note the kind of material of which the gar- 
ments are made : why would you expect this material 
to be used ? What is the peculiarity about the meth- 
od of dressing- the hair ? What is the most striking 
feature about their shoes? What does this tell you 
concerning the rank of these people? 

Describe the courtyard : its pavement and sur- 
roundings. 

In China to what extent do women of the higher class 
mingle in society with the opposite sex? 

From the next standpoint we shall see at close 
range a Chinese family of the poorer class. 

Position 3. Family of the lower class "chowing" 
in their house, partially destroyed during the 
siege, Tientsin 

What are these people doing? How do their 
table manners differ from ours? What impression 
do you get from the surroundings of the habits 
of the Chinese people ? What season of the year do 
you infer it to be ? Why ? What makes you think 
that the men of the family perform heavy work of 
some kind? 

This house is a type of those occupied by most 
of the people in the cities : of what material is it 
constructed? How high are these houses (see the 
house just beyond) ? How do they differ from the 
dwellings of the poorer class in the crowded cities 
of America? 

! From one of the bridges crossing a canal in Can- 
ton we shall see the way in which a great many peo- 
ple of that city live. 



256 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 4. Canton's "floating" population, on 
Shameen Canal, from English Bridge 

How would you describe the number of boats 
upon this canal? Each one is the home of a Chi- 
nese family. Examine the boat directly in front 
of you : which part of it is most secluded ? For 
what do you think it may be used? Notice the 
further end from which the long oar extends: for 
what is this part intended ? 

Canton is a densely crowded city. The houses, usually of 
one story, cover a large area. Vacant building sites are there- 
fore not to be had and houses unoccupied are scarce. What 
effect will this have upon the amount ' charged for rent ? 
Why is a boat likely to be a cheaper dwelling place than a 
house? What other advantages may a boat possess in a city 
located upon a river and intersected by canals? About 
400,000 people in Canton live in boats. 

Summary. Compare the different classes of 
Chinese people whom you have visited. Contrast 
the surroundings of the poor with those of the 
wealthy. Tell about the way in which so many 
people in Canton live and mention some of the ad- 
vantages and disadvantages of this kind of life. 
Name and describe the characteristic features of the 
race to which the Chinese belong. 

Surface Features 

Introduction. Examine a map showing the 
physical features of China. What is the char- 
acter of the greater portion of the land in 
the west and south? In Manchuria? In the 
eastern central part bordering upon the coast? De- 
scribe the coast line opposite Formosa. From the 
standpoints which you are about to take you will 
view examples of typical surface features of China. 



SURFACE FEATURES OF CHINA 257 

Locate Pekin and the Pei River. Where is Hong 
Kong? See if the province of Kiangsi is shown 
upon the map in your text-book. It is about 300 
miles west of Fuchau and the same distance south 
from the Yangtse River. Now find upon the map 
where the meridian of 120 degrees E. crosses the 
parallel of 40 degrees N. ; near this place is Shan- 
hai-Kwan where our next standpoint is taken. 

Position 5. From the South Gate, north, over Shan- 
hai-Kwan, the eastern terminus of the Great 
Wall of China 

How does the land upon which this city is lo- 
cated differ from that beyond? Describe the degree 
of slope, character of surface and altitude of the 
distant features. Why is the area upon which the 
town is situated better adapted for buildings and 
streets than that beyond? What effect do those 
distant surface features have upon the commercial 
intercourse between neighboring peoples ? Note the 
Great Wall upon the steep slopes of the moun- 
tains almost directly in front of you. From the 
general appearance of the mountain sides what do 
you infer concerning their usefulness for farming 
purposes? How will the soil there differ in tex- 
ture and fertility from that found upon the plains? 

In the next Position you are to look from the 
top of a tower easterly across the city of Pekin. 
Note upon the map the direction from Pekin of 
Manchuria, Port Arthur, Gulf of Pechili, and the 
Grand Canal. 

Position 6. A busy thoroughfare in the Tartar City, 
from Drum Tower {east) to Tung-Chimen Gate, 
Pekin 



258 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Point towards Manchuria, Port Arthur, the 
Grand Canal. Upon what kind of land is Pekin 
situated? What do you infer about the character 
of the surface near the horizon? Give the reason 
for your answer. 

What limits the extension of this plain in the direction 
which we are looking? 

On all sides the appearance of the land as far as 
the eye can see is the same: what portion of our 
own country does it resemble? 

In which direction does this plain extend the farthest? 

What suggests a soil and climate favorable for 
agriculture? Why is this site favorable for the 
growth of a large city? 

Our next standpoint is in the heart of China in 
the province of Kiangsi. Kiangsi is south of Han- 
kau and west from Fuchau. Find our position as 
nearly as you can upon the map. From the top of 
a hill you will view the surface features. 

Position 7. Paddy fields, farm houses and patches 
of tea, at Matin, Kiangsi province, among the 
mountains of interior China 

Describe the general character of the land. What 
limits the extent of our vision directly in front? 
What do you infer about the usefulness of that 
portion of the land for cultivation? 

Describe the surface of the hillside just across 
the valley. Compare it with the slopes at our feet. 
What kind of land is found at the bottom of the 
valley? For what different crops are the hillsides 
and the valley bottoms used? (Why?) From the 



SURFACE FEATURES OF CHINA 259 

presence of these crops what do you infer about the 
prevailing condition of temperature and moisture? 

Find Hong Kong upon the map. Upon what is 
it located ? In the next Position you will look from 
one of the hills above the city towards the coast of 
China. 

Position 8. Looking across the Bay to Kowloon and 
mainland, from Bowen Road, above Hong Kong 

What is the general appearance of the country 
across the bay ? Describe the way the land beyond 
those low hills slopes down to the water's edge. Is 
the coast line regular or irregular? (How is it rep- 
resented upon the map?) Does it offer conditions 
favorable for good harbors? Is there anything in 
this scene that helps to justify your answer? What 
effect will the character of the land bordering upon 
the sea have upon the number and growth of settle- 
ments along this coast? From the location of the 
town opposite where do you infer the settlements 
will be located ? 

Summary. Describe the surface of the land in 
the different parts of China visited through the 
stereoscope. Tell which parts are capable of sup- 
porting a great number of people, and why. Give 
the reasons for the scanty population in other por- 
tions. Describe the coast of the mainland opposite 
Hong Kong. 

Products 

Study or review the lessons on the cultivation of 
rice (pp. 320-323), tea (pp. 317-320), as well as 
the following study on bamboo : 



260 geography through the stereoscope 

Bamboo 

Introduction. Name some articles made either 
wholly or in part of bamboo. From what country 
do most of the articles made from bamboo come? 
Does bamboo grow in the United States ? What cli- 
matic conditions are best adapted for its growth ? 

You will examine some specimens of bamboo and 
will study from two standpoints, one in China and 
the other in Ceylon, the plant as it grows. 

Specimens of Bamboo (is pieces) 

Compare a piece of bamboo in weight with a piece 
of wood of the same diameter. How do you think it 
compares in strength with a piece of wood of the 
same weight ? Name some uses dependent upon these 
qualities. What effect do the joints have upon the 
strength and stiffness of a long pole ? Why is bam- 
boo well adapted for fishing poles? For what pur- 
poses does the hollow central portion make the bam- 
boo useful (the partitions can easily be removed if 
desired) ? 

Describe the structure of the "bamboo, that is,' of 
what does the wood seem to be composed? What 
effect will this structure have upon the attempt to 
split the bamboo (if you have a knife try to do it) ? 
Name some uses which depend upon this quality. 

Why is the stem of the bamboo more impervious 
to moisture than ordinary wood ? In what way does 
this affect its usefulness for building materials in a 
moist climate? For utensils for holding liquids? 

You will now take a Position near Nankin in east- 
ern China : find Nankin upon the map. What parts 



BAMBOO 261 

of our own country are in about the same latitude? 
Upon the flood plain of what river is Nankin? 

Position g. Cultivated bamboo— a plantation at 
Nankin, China 

Do these cultivated plants grow in dense clumps 
or in open groves ? Why is this method of cultiva- 
tion desirable and necessary? Where do you find 
the foliage of the bamboo? What is absent from 
the lower parts of the stalk? How tall do these 
plants grow (compare with the height of the men) ? 
What helps you to recognize these stems as bamboo ? 
(What does that characteristic indicate concerning 
the internal structure of the stalk ? Why is that pro- 
vision necessary?) 

The bamboo requires rich, moist soil: does this 
ground seem to be well-drained or marshy ? 

From the next Position you will see the bamboo 
as it grows naturally. 

Position 10. Giant bamboos, "King of Grasses/' 
nearKandy, Ceylon 

How do these people appear in size in comparison 
with the height of the bamboo ? Describe the kind 
of clump in which this gigantic grass grows. Tell 
why nature does not allow the plant to branch near 
the bottom of the stem. How does the bamboo stalk 
resemble the grass in structure? What evidence do 
you see here of this characteristic ? What quality of 
the bamboo stem does that broken stalk reveal? 
Show by a drawing the shape of the leaf. 

Supplementary. Read in your text book or in 
Carpenter's Geographical Reader, Asia, pages 153 



.262 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

and 1 54 about bamboo and its uses, or look in the en- 
cyclopaedia. Read what is printed upon the back of 
the stereograph mount (Cultivated Bamboo, Posi- 
tion 9). Write a description of the bamboo in a 
letter to a friend. 

The Waterways of China 

Introduction. Between what cities does the 
Grand Canal extend ? ( See map. ) What is the char- 
acter of the land in that part of China? What does 
the Chinese word "Ho" mean? Find the Pei Ho 
upon the map. Locate Canton. 

Your next standpoint is to be at Soo-Chow near 
the southern end of the Grand Canal. You are to 
view one of the every day scenes upon that famous 
waterway. 

Position 11. The picturesque land of Confucius, Woo 
Men Bridge and Grand Canal, Soo-Chow 

(a) Name the things in this scene which are pic- 
turesque and attractive. What do the people along 
the shore appear to be doing ? Describe the kind of 
boats seen along the canal. Where have you seen 
other boats like these (Position 4, page 256) ? How 
are the boats now in motion being propelled ? What 
do you infer about the depth of water in the canal ? 
What do you suppose the Grand Canal is used for ? 

Note. The canals which intersect the plains of China 
form a network of water. From the Grand Canal run smaller 
canals and from these in turn branch others. Most of these 
ditches are capable of floating good-sized boats. Of what 
importance then, are they to internal commerce? The fish 
taken annually from these waterways is an important food 
supply. These canals also furnish the water required for 
irrigating the rice fields. 



WATER-WAYS OF CHINA 263 

(b) Look carefully at this bridge: it is character- 
istic of others in China. Draw a simple outline 
sketch of it. What is its most striking and attractive 
feature? Notice the vertical strip of board with 
characters upon it fastened to the side of the bridge : 
what is it intended to show? What do you infer 
from this device concerning the present condition of 
the canal? How does the construction of the bank 
near where we stand indicate probable variations in 
the level of the water? Why is the arch of the 
bridge built so high above the canal ? 

From the next standpoint you will see one of the 
most important methods of carrying freight from 
Tientsin to Pekin. 

Position 12. Junk flotilla on the Pei-Ho — trans- 
porting U, S. Army stores from Tientsin to 
Pekin 

Describe the kind of boats used on this river. Why 
.do they keep so close to this bank ? What makes you 
think so? From the appearance of this portion of 
the Pei-Ho and the kind of land through which it 
flows what do you infer about the direction of the 
river's course ? What effect will this have on the dis- 
tance by water from Tientsin to Pekin? Judging 
from the progress which this fleet is now making 
do you think the journey will require a long or a 
short time? What effect will this have upon the 
cost of transportation? (In the United States what 
method of transportation would be provided between 
places as important as Tientsin and Pekin ? Would 
the surface of the land in eastern China be favorable 
or unfavorable for this kind of transportation ? Give 
reasons.) 



* 264 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

In the next Position you are to look from the roof 
of the Imperial Custom House in Canton down the 
(Chukiang) Pearl River. 

Position 13, Looking down the Chukiang River on 
the houses of the 400,000 boat population of 
Canton 

What is the most remarkable feature of this 
scene? How do you suppose the owners of these 
boats make a living (notice the number of craft in 
the middle of the river) ? How does this large ves- 
sel lying at the end of the wharf differ in type and 
construction from those all around it? Where do 
you think it was built? It carries passengers and 
freight between this city of Canton and Hong Kong. 
(Find those places on the map.) What kind of 
boats are those just beyond and to the right of that 
group of dark buildings? What do you see in the 
distance over the roofs of those buildings? What 
do you infer concerning the importance of this river 
to the city of Canton ? 

Summary. Describe the Pei river and the 
Grand Canal. Name the most important rivers; 
find out which of these are most useful for 
commerce, note which ones the Grand Canal has to 
cross. Describe the kind of boats you have seen in 
China and tell about the "floating population" of 
Canton. Why are the waterways of China the most 
important routes of travel and transportation at the 
present time? Why are railroads so few in num- 
ber? 



LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 
Chinese Cities 

Position iR. Unchangeable China, a "freighting 
train" as in Confucius* day— caravan entering 
Pekin 

Position 2R. A busy thoroughfare in the Tartar 
city — Pekin 



Position 3R. Pagoda Gate and townspeople of 
Mukden, importa 
road, Manchuria 



Mukden, important point on the Siberian Rail- 
?hu 



Position 4R. Canton, the vast metropolis of China, 
from a Pagoda on the northern wall 

Introduction. Locate the cities of Pekin, Can- 
ton and Mukden. 

Study the wall surrounding Pekin (Position iR). 
For what purpose was it built? How does it com- 
pare in height with the camels of the caravan ? With 
an ordinary building? Is the face of the wall 
vertical or sloping? Why? Describe the form of 
construction which breaks the continuity of the wall 
at intervals and infer what advantage this afforded 
the defenders. 

Describe the entrance to these walled cities (Posi- 
tion 3R). Note the form and width of the open- 
ing and the thickness of the structure which forms 
the gateway. Of what material is it built? What 
makes the entrance to a Chinese city easily recog- 
nizable from a distance? Describe this feature. 
Note the distant view of one of these gateways as 
seen from the Drum Tower in Pekin (Position 2R). 
Of what advantage was this to travelers approach- 
ing the city? 

Describe the surface of the land upon which 
Canton is located. How does it compare in this 



266 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

respect with Pekin (Position 2R) ? The situation 
of Mukden is similar. Do you think the char- 
acter of the land surrounding these cities made pro- 
tecting walls necessary? Explain. 

Tell about the height of the buildings (compare 
them with the trees), the apparent width of the 
streets, the nearness of the houses to each other 
and the presence or absence of parks and squares 
in Canton. Is this what you would expect in cities 
located upon broad plains? What artificial restric- 
tion upon the growth of the city in area has prob- 
ably helped to bring about this condition? What 
do you infer about the density of population in a 
Chinese city? What kind of dwellings are found 
in American cities as the direct result of trying to 
house a great many people within a limited area 
(page 6) ? In Canton, what peculiar method of 
living (page 256) is made necessary by the over- 
crowding of that city? 

Summary. Write a description of a typical Chi- 
nese city. Tell about the characteristic location, 
the walls which surround it, the kind of houses, 
the width of streets, the density of population and 
the peculiar method of living adopted in Canton. 
Make comparisons in any of these respects with 
American or European cities. 

The Great Wall of China 

What is the Great Wall of China (see text book 
index, Geography Readers or encyclopaedia) ? In 
what part of the Chinese Empire is it (see maps) ? 
For what purpose was it built ? 



THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA 267 

You will view this wonderful piece of work from 
three standpoints. Follow the directions given be- 
low but do not fail to note anything else which 
seems important. 

Position 5R. Shan-hai-Kwan, eastern end of Chi- 
na's Great Wall 

Position 6R. China's old barrier against the Tartar 
hordes, Great Wall crossing the mountains 

Position 7R. Looking north along China's Great 
Wall where it climbs the Isiao-Hsi mountains, 
near Shan-hai-Kwan 

Note of what the wall is built, its height and 
width and the presence of structures which rise 
above its general level or project out in front of it. 
For what were these intended? 

Describe the character of the country through 
which the wall runs, and the difficulties of construc- 
tion imposed by the natural surface features. What 
do you infer concerning the amount of labor required 
to build this great wall ? Concerning the number of 
men required to guard it ? What impression do these 
thoughts leave concerning the former greatness of 
the Chinese nation? 

Tell about the present condition of the wall and 
give the reasons which to you seem a satisfactory 
explanation. 



JAPAN 

Introduction. To what race do the Japanese be- 
long? What and where is their country? Draw a 
sketch map of the Japanese Empire. Locate thereon 
Tokyo, Kyoto and Mt. Fujiyama. Under your 
teacher's direction, and in so far as previous study 
has made them known to you, compare the Japanese 
with other Asiatic peoples. With Europeans. 
Point out the resemblances between the British Isles 
and Japan. In what ways has the homeland of the 
Japanese favored the development of patriotism, the 
adoption of European ways, and commercial ad- 
vancement ? 

Surface Features of Japan 

The Inland Sea, famed for its beauty, separates 
the largest Japanese island, Hondo, from Shikoku 
and Kiushu to the south. You are to stand on the 
shore of Hondo, near its southern end, and look 
across a narrow channel of the Inland Sea to one of 
the many islands that dot its waters. 

Position i. Flailing barley beside a Ashing beach 
on the Inland Sea— (looking S. J$. to Oshima 
Island) 

Here we are in Japan, while America lies far 
across the Pacific Ocean to our left. 

Are these people men or women? What are they doing? 
How? Why is that basket near at hand? What purposes 
does the straw from grain serve in this scene? 

What features of this landscape are beautiful? 



SURFACE FEATURES OF JAPAN 269 

What evidence do the beaches give that these waters 
are part of the ocean? What means of securing 
food supplements agriculture? 

Describe the surface of the opposite island. 
(Study a physical map to see if all Japan is m the 
main like this part.) What vegetation covers 
Oshima Island? How much of the surface is 
cleared for cultivation? Why no more? On the 
similar island where you stand why crowd the build- 
ing and threshing floor against the wall that crowns 
the beach ? Why should not the progressive Japan- 
ese use American steam threshing machines here? 

You are now to go some 200 miles to the northern 
end of this Inland Sea, and then fifty miles inland 
and see the rapids of one of the larger rivers of 
Japan, near Kyoto. 

Position 2. Exciting experience of men on a log raft, 
shooting the Hozn Rapids, on the Katsura, Kyoto 

Are these men in danger? What are they doing? Can 
you see all the raft? Why are the men on its forward 
section only? Why are they pushing so hard? Can you 
illustrate your conclusions by a diagram? Contrast the 
rafting of logs in Japan and on American rivers. 

From what part of the islands must the logs 
come ? Why should forests be found about the head- 
waters of Japanese rivers? To what part of the 
island are they floating? What does this suggest 
as to conditions there? Why use this method of 
transportation? What kind of slopes rise from the 
river ? What do you infer as to the width and form 
of the valley? As to the general land surface? 

Considering the surface, form, and size of the 
Japanese islands, why should this scene be typical of 



270 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

the upper courses of their rivers? Why are not the 
names of the Japanese rivers given on the map in 
your text book? 

A railroad roughly parallels the coast from Kyoto 
to Yokohama, and nearly two hundred miles east 
of Position 2 you are to stand on a little country 
bridge and gaze upon the revered volcanic peak of 
Fujiyama. 

Position 3. A home at the foot of Fujiyama, the 
great Sacred Mountain of Japan 

Why should the Japanese love to represent this 
mountains ? Where have you seen it pictured ? Make 
a rapid sketch of the peak. Explain the contrasting 
colors of the upper and lower slopes. What do you 
infer as to the height of the mountain ? 

It is a volcano-. How was its form produced? 
(Why do the slopes fail to rise to a point?) Study 
the upper slopes to see whether the latest action has 
been even accumulation or erosion. Is the volcano 
active, then, or extinct? Where are there volcanoes 
in America? How are volcanoes distributed with 
relation to the Pacific ocean? 

Notice the level base of the clouds. Why should moisture 
condense as rising air reaches a certain height about the 
mountain? What relation have the clouds to the colors of 
the summit and base of the mountain? 

The countryman approaching you is one of many hun- 
dreds who are carrying home this morning bulky crates of 
the tender, leafy branch tips of the tea shrub to be cured. 
How would such burdens be carried in America? How would 
road and bridge differ? Beyond the fagots of firewood and 
the open barn appear the tops of tall stacks of rice straw. 
What are the corresponding staple food and export crops 
of your state? 



SURFACE FEATURES OF JAPAN 271 

There are many volcanoes throughout Japan. 
Some are active (see p. 357) and some are long ex- 
tinct. You are now to stand within the vast circular 
amphitheater of an ancient volcanic crater, which is 
near the center of Kiushu Island, south of previous 
standpoints. 

Position 4. Looting west toward Kumamoto across 
fertile rice- fields in the old crater of Aso-San, 
Japan 

The valley leads toward the East China Sea and 
you are looking toward the mouth of the Yangtze 
river in China. America is some thousands of miles 
behind you. 

What are the men near you doing? How do the 
Japanese contrive to cultivate water-loving rice on 
sloping ground? What is the size of a rice field? 
Its form ? Why ? 

What relation have the above facts to the non-introduc- 
tion into Japan of the agricultural machines used on 
Louisiana rice farms ? Where do you get glimpses of the 
canals that supply or remove the water that floods the rice 
fields? Why should not the land in the distance be used 
for rice? 

Again describe the surface features of Japan as 
typified by the land forms in the distance. How 
much of the land in view is cultivated? Why are 
not hillsides thus closely cultivated in America? 
Why must they be in Japan ? In answering consider 
the amount of tillable land in relation to the density 
of population. (See statistics and population maps 
in the textbook.) Consider also that until recent 
times Japan has had little commerce with other 
peoples. 



272 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Review. Write a summary, in a few words, de- 
scribing the surface of Japan, the consequent charac- 
ter of the rivers, and the relations of both relief and 
drainage to occupations. 

Compare Japan and the British Isles as to surface, 
rivers, agriculture, and the sources of food supply. 

Japanese Homes 

Introduction. What is the climate of southern 
Japan — seasons, temperature, rainfall ? What char- 
acteristics must houses have to be suited to such a 
climate ? Severe earthquakes occur in Japan. What 
kind of buildings as to height and materials would be 
least injured by earthquake shocks? 

Under your teacher's guidance the class may 
rapidly recall the historic orders of art and architec- 
ture from Grecian to Renaissance, that you have 
studied in your course in drawing. How much ef- 
fect will you expect these to have had in Japan? 
Why? 

You are now privileged to visit some Japanese 
homes in the capital of the empire. First you are 
to stand on the lawn before the house of a leading 
Japanese noble, and study the structure of the dwell- 
ing. 

Position 5. South front, home of Count Okuma, 
one of the most prominent and wealthy of Japan's 
aristocracy, Tokyo 

What characteristics of this building and its sur- 
roundings make it evident that it is the home of a 
Japanese of means? Since it is fairly typical of 
Japanese homes, what does it tell us about the 



JAPANESE HOMES 2/3 

people ? ( Consider such qualities as love of display, 
artistic taste, culture, extravagance, and their op- 
posites.) The massive, wide-spreading roof offers 
protection from what two features of Japanese 
weather? What provisions for ventilation do you 
see? Why are they needed? Why no chimney? 
Notice the two walls of sliding panels (a third of 
wood at the left) forming a corridor around the 
central apartments. What advantage has this con- 
struction in the winter? How do the character of 
the foundation and the construction of the walls 
adapt the house to escape serious injury from earth- 
quake shocks? 

What American invention on the roof witnesses 
that Japan has adopted western science? 

How does the home of the average wealthy 
American differ in construction, ornamentation and 
surroundings from this? In what sections of the 
United States, or for what purpose, would Japanese 
architecture be suitable ? 

What main difference between the dress of men in Japan 
and in America? Which most pleases the eye? Why? 
Is it to be expected that all the Japanese will adopt the 
costumes of western civilization? Why? 

You are now to enter this dwelling and study its 
interior. 

Position 6. Serene simplicity of home of Connt 
Okuma, one of the Mikado* s richest subjects, 
Tokyo 

What is the most striking thing to you about the 
interior of a Japanese dwelling? What feature do 



274 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

you most approve? What does this apartment tell 
you about the characteristic qualities of the Japan- 
ese? Why is the term "serene simplicity" used 
in the title? 

Compare these rooms with those of an American 
home. Consider the furniture, ornaments, floors, 
windows and outer walls, doors and partition dec- 
oration. What product of western science do you 
notice? Does the scene suggest that the Japanese 
have slavishly copied the West, or adapted its in- 
ventions without abandoning their own customs? 
Does this home indicate that Japan was civilized by, 
or before, contact with Western peoples? 

You may now observe a party of young Japanese 
women, professional musicians and entertainers, and 
note their polished courtesy. 

Position 7. Charming Geishas at dinner— the cor- 
rect serving of a Japanese meal, Tokyo 

What is the most remarkable difference between 
the Japanese method of serving a meal and our 
own? What dishes or utensils do you recognize? 
The hostess is serving tea : how ? How is soup 
served and taken? What strange table utensils is 
one using with which to take up a bit of fish or 
vegetables? What kind of food, the mainstay of 
the meal, do you think is kept warm in the covered 
wooden dish? 

Are household appointments more elaborate and 
burdensome in Japan or in America? What char- 
acteristics of the Japanese suggested by the corner 
beam, the plant, and the ornaments the women wear 
in their hair? 



JAPANESE HOMES 275 

Does the dress of Japanese women allow free movement? 
(Return also to Position i). Does it allow healthy develop- 
ment of the body? Is the dress of the hostess in good taste, 
judged by our standards? Compare the dress of the geisha 
girls with corresponding elaborate costumes in America. 

The furniture of a Japanese bedroom is very dif- 
ferent from what you are accustomed to see at home. 
Bedding is packed away every morning and brought 
out again at night. 

Position 8, Girl sleeping between wadded futons 
with head on a wooden support — tea house, 
Hikone 

Do you think you would rest comfortably on a 
Japanese bed ? How does this one differ from your 
own? What features of Japanese houses make 
thick bed clothing welcome in the cool season? Re- 
call how the women seen at dinner dressed their 
hair and judge one advantage in this style of pil- 
low. Is a race that uses such pillows restless or 
calm in temperament? Could Americans sleep 
soundly in rooms whose walls admitted light? 

What fuel must be used in the stove, or brazier, for heat- 
ing the tea and the room? Should fire insurance rates be 
higher in Japan or America? (Consider the character of 
the houses as well as the methods of heating.) Can you tell 
what the other furniture of this room is used for? 

Supplementary. Read the brief account of 
Japanese home life in the book of selections from the 
Youths' Companion entitled Toward the Rising 
San (Ginn & Co.). Read other descriptions of 
Japanese home life in such school readers as Car- 
penter's Asia (American Book Co.), or Cham- 
berlain's Hozv We Are Sheltered (Macmillan Co.), 
and such books for children as Our Little Japanese 
Cousin (L. C. Page & Co.). 



276 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

When time allows visit Kyoto, near which you have already 
stood, to study the outdoor home life of the Japanese. 

Position 8a. A family of the middle class picnicking under 
the cherry blossoms, Omuro Gosho (JS. to Pagoda) 

Position 8b. South over gardens from home of Mr. P. Na- 
mikawa, the famous leader in art industries, Kyoto 

Would you like to join a Japanese family picnic? Why? 
Do we love blossoms as they do? Compare the garden of 
Mr. Namikawa (which is typical of Japan) with an ordinary 
American backyard. Also with the grounds of a fine suburban 
residence in America. Notice the miniature landscape created, 
with bridges, islands, dwarf trees, stone lanterns and other 
formal features. Has density of population influenced the 
character of gardens in Japan and America? Can you make 
your own backyard at home a more attractive spot for home 
life? 

Write an article for your school paper describing 
features of your visit to a Japanese home. Empha- 
size the characteristics of Japanese homes that you 
would advise Americans to adopt. 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 
Japanese Cities 

Find on your map the location of the cities you 
are to study — Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto. Ascertain 
the population of each, as given in the appendix to 
your text book. Compare their size with that of 
cities familiar to you. 

Position iR. A part of Tokyo's ioo square miles— 
outlook N. W. from Atago tower, near Shiba Park 

Position gR. Asakusa street with its passing 
throngs, Tokyo 

Position 3R. West from Nihon bashi (bridge) along 
canal crowded with freight, toward center of 
Tokyo 



JAPANESE CITIES 277 

Position 4R. Pouring a stream of fighters into Korea 
—soldiers leaving Tokyo for the front 

Position 5R, Looking from Tennoji Pagoda west 
over one of the Mikado* s biggest commercial 
cities, Osaka 

Position 6R. A Japanese silk store, Osaka 

Position 7R. A Buddhist funeral, Kyoto 

Position 8R. Midsummer traffic under the awnings 
of Shijo-bashidori (west), a busy thoroughfare of 
Kyoto, 

What seems to you the most striking char- 
acteristic of these cities of Japan? Compare their 
buildings with those of an American city. Con- 
trast a birdseye view over a city of Japan and one 
over a great American city (See pp. i — 7). What 
advantages for business, health, or homes, in either 
plan? What kinds of buildings will western com- 
merce and industry promote in Japan? Account 
for the buildings seen from Position 4R. Is the 
rapid growth of the suburbs of American cities 
making them more or less like Japanese cities? 

What are the notable features of the streets in 
these Japanese cities? What do you see that is 
strange, and what familiar? Compare the clothing 
worn in hot weather (Position 8R) with that of 
the winter season (Position 2R). Contrast "shop- 
ping" in Japan, as you now see it (Position 6R), 
with your observations of American customs in 
your community. Where are merchants and cus- 
tomers the more hurried? Where the more cere- 
monious? What conclusions do you form as to the 
qualities of the Japanese people from their cities? 
Consider such traits as the following and their op- 
posites : love of display, love for nature, haste, read- 
iness to adopt western ways. Write a letter to your 



278 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

classmates telling of your visit to Tokyo, its build- 
ings and streets, homes and stores, its busy workers 
and the children. 

Transportation in Japan 

Take note of the places in Japan that you are to 
visit and find their location by means of a good map. 

Position gR. Japanese lady in a yama-kago (moun- 
tain-chair) crossing the torrential Daiya river 
near Nikko 

Position 10R. Burden bearers of Japan— a scene in 
Tokyo 

Position 11R. Picturesque shops and crowds on 
Batsumati Street, in the native quarter— looking 
S. W— Yokohama 

Position 12R. Shiba Canal, Tokio 

Position 13R. Coaling the Pacific Mail S. S. Siberia 
at the fortified naval station of Nagasaki 

Position 14R. Ocean steamships and lighters in 
Nagasaki harbor, — town in distance 

Position 15R. Modern improvements in an ancient 
city—W. over the Kamogawa at Shijo Bridge, 
Kyoto 

Position 16R. The Ginza, its cars and people— the 
most important thoroughfare of Tokyo 

Compare native Japanese methods of transport- 
ing people and goods (Positions 9R, 10R, 1 iR, 12R, 
15R) with those common in America. (Consider 
the power, speed, cost of vehicles, etc. ) Why should 
the jinrikisha, the invention of an American living 
in Japan, have proved so valuable? These scenes 
being fairly typical, are draught animals common? 
(Consider in explanation the food supply in Japan, 
the abundance and cost of human labor, etc.) Be- 
cause of the form and surface of the islands, what 
must be the importance of transportation by water? 
Compare the coaling of steamers at Nagasaki and 



JAPANESE HANDICRAFTS 279 

at an American port, and give reasons for the con- 
trast. To what extent have the Japanese adopted 
western ways of moving people and goods? (Posi- 
tions 14R, 15R, 16R.) Examine a railroad map 
of Japan for further evidence. 

In summary, list and describe the characteristic 
methods of transportation in Japan, and give some 
explanation of the controlling causes. 

Japanese Handicrafts — Manufacture of Pot- 
tery 

Position 17R. Vats for mixing clay for the famous 
Awata porcelain, Kinkosan Works, Kyoto 

Position 18R. Preparing the clay {remixing and 
redrying) for the famous Awata porcelain, Kin- 
kosan works, Kyoto 

Position igR. A potter and his wheel, fashioning 
a vase of Awata porcelain— in the famous Kin- 
kosan works, Kyoto 

Position 20R. Workmen watching kilns full of 
precious Awata porcelain, in the Kinkosan works, 
Kyoto 

Position 21R. Removing pottery from the kiln, at 
the famous Kinkosan porcelain works at Awata 

Position 22R. Decorators at work in the noted 
Kinkosan porcelain works at Awata. 

Position 23R. Expert workmen creating exquisite 
designs in cloisonne— Mr, Namikawa in back- 
ground), Kyoto 

Position 24 R. Pretty factory girls decorating cheap 
pottery for the foreign markets, Kyoto 

How do Japanese craftsmen compare as to cus- 
toms and characteristics with American factory em- 
ployees? (Notice their dress, working positions, 
tools or machines, interest in their work, etc.) De- 
scribe such main steps in making pottery as you ob- 
serve — mixing and drying the clay, moulding, dec- 



280 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

orating, firing. Compare the vases manufactured 
mainly for sale in Japan with those for exporta- 
tion. Does the Western world or the Japanese pub- 
lic possess the finer taste? Is the foreign demand 
for Japanese wares tending toward the advance- 
ment or deterioration of applied art in Japan? 

Where is truly artistic pottery made in the United 
States? Cheap pottery? Had you rather have one 
truly beautiful vase, or several gaudy ornaments of 
the same total cost? Gather at the school a loan 
collection of Japanese wares — pottery, metal ware, 
lacquered ware, textiles, fans, etc. Compare them 
with American and European goods. 

Child Life in Japan 

Position 25R* Big sisters and little brothers in the 
Land of the Rising Sun—Yokohama. 

Position 26R. Schoolhouse and grounds, with vine- 
covered shelter and little folks playing (looking 
S.E.), Yokohama 

Position 2 7R. The "Lotus flower," a typical game 
played by Japanese children, during cherrybloom 
festival, Tokyo 

Position 28R. The warlike spirit in the youthful 
Jap— schoolboys in JJeno Park, Tokyo 

Position 29R. A tug of war, Ueno Park, Tokyo 

Position 30R. Schoolboys Ashing in a dUch near 
Shimobaza pond, Ueno Park 

Position 31R. Children of the "enlightened rule" 
celebrating feast of their first Emperor, Jimmu 
(660 B.C.) 

Position 32R. A street performer amusing the crowd, 
Kobe 

Are these Japanese children as happy as you ? Do 

you like their dress ? Could you run in their street 

shoes? What do these suggest as to Japanese 



CHILD LIFE IN JAPAN 281 

weather and streets ? Notice their head dress. Com- 
pare their schoolhouses and schoolyards with your 
own. Their sports and amusements with yours. 
Now that you have become somewhat acquainted 
with the children of Japan do they seem very 
strange to you or after all much like yourself? In 
summary prepare to tell your classmates about the 
ways of Japanese children that interest you most. 

You will enjoy reading about your new friends 
in such books at the public library as Our Little 
Japanese Cousin, by Miss Wade (L. C. Page & 
Co.), and Little People of Asia, by Miss Muller (A. 
Flanagan, Chicago) . Write to a cousin an account 
of your visit to a school in Tokyo and of a trip to 
Ueno Park with the scholars. 



KOREA 

Korean Ways 

Introduction. Where is Korea? Draw a sketch 
map of Asia showing the neighbors of Korea. 
Mark the location of Chemulpo and Seoul. What 
kind of land surface occupies most of the peninsula ? 
Why has it been called the "Hermit Kingdom?" 

You are now to stand in a street of the principal 
port of Korea and watch two natives at work. 

Position x. Primitive life in the "Hermit Kingdom" 
—winnowing barley in the streets of Chemulpo 

What a strikingly different world this is about 
you from that you know at home. Why does the 
man who stands on the block raise his shallow bas- 
ket so high ? What is falling from it ? Explain the 
effect of the breeze on the grain and the chaff. Why 
the squares of matting on the ground? What does 
the man at the left have a bowl for : is it to fill the 
basket ? 

Describe the appearance of the street and the 
buildings ranged beside it. What kinds of roofs do 
the huts have ? They seem to merge with the brown, 
treeless hills beyond. Does this road look like a 
city street ? Why ? What does the general appear- 
ance of the place indicate as to the enterprise and 
condition of the Koreans ? Does the attitude of the 
two laborers and the group of people beyond con- 
firm this impression? 



KOREAN WAYS 283 

Chemulpo is the port of the capital, Seoul. Your 
next standpoint is to be beside two farmers near 
Seoul. 

Position 2. A primitive grist mill of the Korean 
peasants— beating turnip seed into meal— suburbs 
of Seoul 

Why is the adjective ''primitive" a good one to 
describe this mill ? Describe the mortar and pestles, 
and their use in making meal from seed. What do 
you infer from these crude implements and the home- 
made bag concerning the relation of these people to 
the outside world ? Note their clothing also. What 
seems to you to be the position of the Koreans in 
the march of civilization ? 

How is the enclosing fence made? What does it indicate 
as to the enterprise of the peasants? 

Your next stand is just outside the city wall of 
the capital city, where some Korean children are 
watching their fathers at work. 

Position 3. A man-power shovel — working on foun- 
dations for the new Post Office— N. W. towards 
western suburbs of Seoul 

How many men have a hand in forcing this 
wooden shovel into the ground? What have most 
of them in their mouths? Do you think these men 
can work to advantage ? What would an American 
contractor use in place of many of the men ? What 
do you infer from the scene as to the wages paid to 
laborers in Korea ? And as to their working value ? 

Do you like any features of Korean clothing? 
Compare the dress of tfie foreman and those of his 
workmen. What is one indication ot superior class 



284 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

or rank ? Notice the baby on the roadway, and infer 
from his condition the climate»of Korea in summer. 

Just across the street are some unfinished build- 
ings, merely roofs supported by posts. You are now 
to see how houses are built in Korea. 

Position 4. House-building in Korea— wall of stone 
and mud against a framework of grass ropes and 
sticks, Seoul 

Tell how the house of a Korean peasant is built. 
Describe the timbers and framework of the walls 
before us. What two parts to the roof? Why is 
grass rope used there? How do these masons plan 
to have the outer wall fairly straight and even? 
Are tools used in placing the stones and mud ? What 
is the purpose of the grass rope that the men are 
working into the wall. What do you infer as to the 
strength of the mortar, or mud, used? Do you 
judge that the building materials are prepared at 
home or manufactured at a distance? What was 
true of the house where you live? What does the 
wall indicate as to the winter climate of Korea? 
Contrast it with the house walls of Japan. (Pp. 
272-274.) How do the two peoples compare in prac- 
tical arts and inventive capacity ? 

You will now visit a neighboring lumber yard to 
discover one reason why stones are preferred to 
boards for making walls. 

Position 5. Crude industries of Korea, where man- 
power is cheaper than mills— sawing lumber in a 
lumberyard of Seoul 

Would you rather work in a lumber yard of 

Korea or in the United States? Why? Describe 

the method of getting out boards in Korea. Why 



KOREAN WAYS 285 

V 

can a log be cut into boards in America during the 
time Korean workmen are getting ready to make the 
first cut? How do boards from an American mill 
compare in finish with those before you? What 
feelings do you have for people so far behind the 
times as these workmen ? Will the introduction into 
Korea of steam sawmills, whose workmen are paid 
higher wages than these toilers, make lumber cheap- 
er or dearer? W T hat will these men do for a living 
then ? Will the special skill they have gained during 
years of labor here be of further value to them? 
Will they be likely to welcome or oppose the change, 
then? 

We now pause for a time on the main highway 
leading north from Seoul, to observe a very com- 
mon' wayside scene there. 

Position 6. Village gossip in a suburb of Seoul — 
looking N. W. on road leading to Pekin Pass 

How many of the group seem gentlemen of leis- 
ure? How white their clothing! Do men carry 
sunshades in America? Are those dressed as 
laborers much concerned about work ? Compare the 
impression of Koreans gained here with that you 
had already formed. 

Compare the landscape with those you saw in 
Japan with relation to the land surface and its 
vegetation. Which land is more beautiful ? Does a 
deforested region indicate a provident or an im- 
poverished country? What must the rains have 
done to the soil on the mountain slopes before you ? 
What lesson to America? How is fuel brought 



286 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

into Seoul? What does the use of pack animals 
indicate as to the country roads of Korea? 

Comparisons and Conclusion. Recall the Ko- 
rean farmers at work winnowing grain and making 
meal. How is grain winnowed or cleaned in 
America ? How ground to flour or meal ? When 
were methods like those of Korean peasants used 
here? When did farmers make their own tools in 
America, and why? What led Americans to pur- 
chase tools and machines made in factories, abandon- 
ing their manufacture in the home? Since America 
exports flour to Asia what do you infer as to the 
cost or quality of flours made by our expensive ma- 
chinery compared with those made by more primi- 
tive means? Why do you suppose the Koreans 
you have seen buy little or no foreign goods? 

What will American and European missions in 
Korea do for the people besides convert some to 
Christianity? What change of the country and 
people may be expected from the settlement of 
Japanese colonies or communities among them, and 
the guidance of Korean leaders by Japanese of- 
ficials ? 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUP 

Cities in Korea 

You are now to take a birdseye view over Seoul, 
then to observe the city wall and a main gateway. 
Within the city you may study the passing traffic 
on a main street, the market quarter, and the 
health conditions along the river bed. After a visit 
to the American Mission you leave Seoul and take 



CITIES IN KOREA 287 

Positions in the ports of Chemulpo and Fusan to 
contrast the old life with the foreign quarters. 

Position iR. Seoul, the capital of Korea— looking S. 
E. from North Wall over the old Palace to Mt. 
Nam San 

Position zR. Typical houses outside the city— from 
the City Wall S.J?, over street leading to South 
Gate, Seoul 

Position 3R. Outside the South Gate, on one of the 
main highways of the Hermit Capital, Seoul 

Position 4R. From South Gate N.E. over the city, 
showing French and American churches, Seoul 

Position 5R. Shops and traders of the "Hermit" 
city— looking west along the wide main street of 
Seoul 

Position 6R. Washing and bathing in the £lthy 
stream carrying off the city's sewerage — looking 
N.W.— Seoul 

Position 7R. The Gospel Light shining into the 
"Hermit Kingdom" — the American Mission, 
Seoul 

Position 8R. Looking N. W. along the street in the 
native (old) Fusan, one of the three open ports of 
exclusive Korea 

Position qR. West to harbor entrance, where Rus- 
sian cruiser returned and sank after battle with 
Japanese, Chemulpo 

Describe the scenery about these cities. Consider 
again the questions raised when the class took Posi- 
tion 6 on the highway near Seoul. Does the free 
use of pack animals argue that the land is more or 
less densely populated than Japan? On this point 
compare the conditions within the wall of Seoul 
with those in Chinese cities (p. 265). Consult sta- 
tistics also, to test your conclusions. 

Compare the buildings with those of other Asiatic 
cities you have visited on stereoscopic field trips, 
noting both points of likeness and difference. What 
opinion do you form of Koreans as compared with 



288 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

other Orientals? What evidence of the entrance 
of Western civilization do you find? How much 
do the customs of the Koreans themselves seem to 
be affected? 

Contrast the sewer of Seoul with the system in- 
stalled in your community. How is water pro- 
vided for washing in an American city? What 
bathing facilities are provided for the public in 
New York or Boston? What would you expect to 
be true as to the death rate in Seoul from your view 
at Position 6R? What change may be expected 
through Japanese influence? 

Imagine that you have lately gone as a missionary 
to Seoul and write a letter home telling about the 
country, its cities ar^d people, and about your 
Korean scholars and their lessons. 



PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUP 

We are now to take four Positions from which we 
may observe some phases of town and country life 
in the Philippine Islands. Locate Manila. Cebu is 
one of the small islands in the Visayan group in the 
middle zone of the archipelago. Ermita is a suburb 
of Manila. 

Position iR. The busy Pasig River, near the 
Bridge of Spain, Manila 

Position 2R. Escolta, the principal business street 
in Manila 

Position sR. A native home and family in Ermita 

Position 4R. Visayan homes in the palm forests, 
Island of Cebu 

The above Positions should be found upon a map 
in the text book and upon the globe. 

Describe the appearance of the principal business 
street in Manila (Position iR). Note the kind of 
clothing worn by the people upon the sidewalk. 
(Why this color ?) Observe the style of vehicle com- 
mon in the street and the size of the animals. This is 
characteristic of the horses in this climate. What 
custom of carrying articles of merchandise is illus- 
trated in this scene ? 

Observe the position of the shadows and note the 
time of day : what do you realize from this concern- 
ing Manila's position in relation to the equator? 
What is the relation of the second story of the build- 
ings to the sidewalk? Of what advantage is this to 



290 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

the pedestrians? To the storekeepers? Three of 
the cabs near at hand have white roofs : why ? 

What do you infer about the commercial impor- 
tance of Manila (Position 2R) ? Describe this scene : 
the number and kind of craft, the appearance of the 
river banks and the method of loading and unload- 
ing. What do you learn from the map and stand- 
point concerning the situation of Manila? (See 
page 162 in Carpenter's Geographical Reader, Aus- 
tralia.) 

Describe the palm forest in the Island of Cebu 
(Position 3R) : the height of the tree, its method of 
growth and the kind of leaves. Do you know what 
kind of fruit grows on these trees? Describe the 
materials (why these?) and method of construction 
used in building the huts. Name the different things 
in this scene which indicate a warm, moist climate. 

Study the hut in Ermita (Position 4R). De- 
scribe the roof — the material used, how arranged, 
the degree of slope and the ridgepole. From what 
climatic conditions is this roof intended to offer pro- 
tection ? Explain how the walls of the hut are made 
and note what serves for foundations. (See page 
183 in Carpenter's Reader, Australia.) Why raise 
the floor of the hut so far above the ground? 

Describe the people and their surroundings. 

Summary. Write a little story about town and 
country life in the Philippine Islands. 

Prepare to tell your classmates about the one of 
the following topics your teacher assigns you : 
Manila^ Clothing in the Philippines, Houses, Vege- 
tation. 



INDUSTRIES OF THE 
WORLD 

TEXTILES 

Laboratory Lesson. What kinds of cloth are 
provided for examination? By what qualities do 
you distinguish them ? 

Unravel a small piece of cotton cloth to discover 
how many sets of thread, or yarn strands, there are, 
and how they are woven together. What is the re- 
lation to each other in direction and position of the 
sets of strands ? The warp threads run parallel with 
the selvage, while the cross strands are called the 
filling, or woof. Look sharply at the selvage edge 
of the piece of cheesecloth and discover what is 
there true of the strands of the warp and of those of 
the filling. Are the other cloths woven in like man- 
ner ? How could you weave a piece of coarse cloth 
with string or yarn? Would you like to see the 
looms on which cloth is quickly woven today ? (See 
p. 300.) 

Examine and tear apart an end of the cotton yarn 
to see of what it is made. How large are the fibers ? 
About how many do you estimate there are at the 
cut end? Are they straight or twisted in the yarn? 
Take the hand lens, or simple microscope, and, 
holding a frayed edge of the cloth to the light, for 
example against the window pane, look carefully at 



292 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

single fibers. Can you see that a cotton fiber is 
like a twisted ribbon, and consequently varies in 
size as one looks along it ? It is this twist of every 
fiber that enables them to hold tightly together as 
stout yarn when many fibers are spun or twisted, 
into one strand. 

Take the cotton boll from its box carefully and 
avoid injuring it, yet observe it closely. What part 
of the plant do you judge it to be? Describe it. 
Pull apart a little of the loose seed cotton in the 
second box and discover just where the cotton fibers 
grow. How long are the fibers? Are they all of 
one length? Is it easy or difficult to clean all the 
fibers from the seeds ? What similar parts or prod- 
ucts do any native plants have that grow about your 
home ? Why not use them for thread and cloth ? 

Cut open one seed and crush the kernel on a piece 
of paper with a knife blade. Notice the stain on the 
paper and infer what quality the kernels possess, or 
what they contain. Which needs to contain most 
plant food, the seed or the fiber? Which will most 
impoverish a farm by its sale? How grow cotton 
fiber for sale and yet keep the soil fertile? 

Introduction to Field Lesson. Review the 
knowledge of the geography of cotton you have 
gained in past years, guided by your teacher's ques- 
tions. Probably you can answer the following: 
What countries of the world and what sections of 
the United States grow cotton ? What climate is ne- 
cessary for the production of cotton? Where is 
most produced? How important is the cotton crop 
to our country? What other products than fiber 



COTTON GROWING 293 

from the cotton plant? To what lands do we send 
cotton? Where, in the world, are the greatest cen- 
ters for cotton manufacturing? What part of the 
United States has recently rapidly multiplied and 
enlarged its cotton mills? What geographical ad- 
vantages favor this development? 

A Cotton Field 

You are now to take a Position in a Georgia cot- 
ton field, that you may study there the process of 
gathering the seed cotton. 

Position iIT. Cotton is King— plantation scene, 
Georgia 

What makes the fields so white? Of what do its 
color and abundance remind you ? Who are picking 
the cotton ? What a contrast in color ! Would you 
like to help the little girl ? Can you see the overseer 
from your position? Why should he ride? 

Study the cotton plant. What field crop or wild 
plant that you know is like it? Where are the 
leaves? (What season is this?) What kind of 
stalk does the cotton plant have ? How tall is it ? 

Just what part of the plant are the workers tak- 
ing? Watch their hands and try to note how they 
pick the cotton. What do they do with it as picked ? 
If gathered by a machine as grain is reaped, what 
would a basket of cotton necessarily contain besides 
seeds and fiber? 

It is now very late in the season, but looking 
very sharply perhaps you can tell whether or not all 
the cotton bolls open at one time. Have any fallen ? 
Are any still unopened ? Should a field of cotton be 



294 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

harvested at once, like wheat, or picked over several 
times, like a crop of peas? What effect would any 
cutting or grasping machine have upon the plants? 
What result must the picking of cotton by hand have 
upon its cost? 

Notice the workers again — their ages and sex. 
Why are not women commonly employed in har- 
vesting wheat? Why valuable as men in a cotton 
field? Notice the women beyond the basket: what 
advantage has a child ? As compared with harvest- 
ing grain, does picking cotton require a long or short 
time? Are there many or few able workers here? 
Judging by these facts and the fallen cotton bolls, 
infer whether help is scarce or plenty when cotton is 
ready for picking. What effect must this have upon 
wages? And the cost of producing cotton? 

Briefly describe the surface of the land. What 
advantages in choosing land of this relief for cotton 
culture? What physical divisions of the South are 
characterized by such relief? Where is cotton 
grown in the South? 

What vegetation, still present in the distance, pre- 
ceded cotton on this land? What does the heavy 
growth imply as to the fertility of the soil ? 

Labor Conditions and Cotton Production. 
Why is cotton not grown in parts of California where 
the climate and soil are favorable? Why did 
the South believe slavery necessary to its prosper- 
ity? Why should European countries think their 
African possessions adapted to cotton culture, not 
•only in soil and climate but also in their labor con- 
ditions? Why can cotton be grown profitably in 
India and China? 



SPINNING AND WEAVING 295 

Read McMurry's story of cotton production in 
Type Studies from United States Geography, or 
Chamberlain's account in his book for children about 
Hozv We Are Clothed. 

Spinning and Weaving 

Introduction. Have you ever seen a spinning 
wheel? And an old colonial loom? Can you tell 
how your great grandparents made their clothing 
a century ago ? You are now to see primitive ways 
of spinning and weaving, and you will also stand in 
a modern factory where power machinery is doing 
the same work. 

Your first Position will be in the crowded slums 
of Naples. Where is this city? You are not to 
mind the men, women, and children working and 
chattering all about the street, but to look intently 
at two women seated before you spinning. 

Position 2IT. The €i Z,azzaroni ' ' as they live in 
the streets of Naples, Italy 

Are the spinners old or young? Why should 
they be the ones who know how to spin? Under 
which arm do they hold the distaff on which the 
loose flax is wound? From which hand does the 
spindle depend? You have seen a top spin: why 
should the spindle be so called ? The spinner draws 
the fibers out between the fingers of the two hands, 
so as to make the yarn of the right size — as you 
see. Between thumb and fingers of the right hand 
the fibers are twisted into firm yarn. Where is the 
yarn wound when spun? Such tools are used by 
very many primitive peoples and barbarous tribes 



296 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

the world around. Are they simple or elaborate? 
Is this process of making yarn swift or slow ? 

You are now to sit down as the guest of a humble 
cottager of Ireland, while his wife places the flax 
wheel, that was everywhere used in her younger 
days, in the dooryard before you. 

Position 3IT. Spinning flax with a spinning 
wheel — beginning of the great linen industry, 
Ireland 

Does the old lady watch you or her work? It 
requires a higher degree of skill to make the finest 
yarns swiftly. (She is not actually at work, but 
merely showing how she used to work. The flax 
which we see tied to the distaff should really be 
wrapped around it so it could be gradually pulled 
off.) Notice the turned stake that serves as distaff 
on the wheel; the flax; and our hostess's use of 
her hands as if to draw out the flax. No change 
in methods thus far. But notice also the spinner's 
foot on the wooden treadle, the rope connecting 
with the crank on the wheel above, and the two 
belts communicating motion to the end of the spin- 
dle that is in sight. Think how the sewing ma- 
chine at home is run, and then tell how the spindle 
is turned on this machine. One belt runs to a groove 
on a larger part of the spindle, as you see. The un- 
seen end of this part slowly winds the yarn that 
is spun, or twisted, by the more rapidly whirling in- 
ner spindle. 

When the flax was spun by the fingers could the 
twisting be continuous, as is the case when the 
twist is given by the ever whirring spindle itself? 
And the yarn be both spun and wound at one and 



SPINNING AND WEAVING 297 

the same time? Or the hands be constantly busy 
in drawing out the fibers ? What advantages, then, 
gained by the invention or introduction from India 
in the sixteenth century, of the spinning wheel? 

Next we shall be welcomed to the home of a 
Japanese farmer, and his wife will stop other work 
and sit down before you at the loom that stands 
ready on the porch. 

Position 4IT. Peasant housewife weaving cotton 
cloth — shuttle in hand ready to pass through 
the warp— Japan 

How intent upon her work! A model for you. 
What pattern of cotton cloth is she weaving? Re- 
call your study of the pieces of cloth (p. 291). Fol- 
low the long stripes of parallel warp yarn with your 
eye from the warp beam beneath up and across to 
the little cloth beam next the weaver, where the 
finished cloth is rolled up. Notice that midway the 
warp is separated by the harness into layers of 
alternate strands, which cross several times. How 
many layers of warp yarn? Where is the shuttle 
passed with relation to them? Notice the white 
cop, or spool, of filling in one of the shuttles. Why 
are several shuttles needed in weaving this pattern? 
After a throw of the shuttle, the weaver's right 
hand pulls the reed, which she is grasping, back to 
push the strand of filling, or woof, snugly into 
place; then the feet work the harness by levers so 
as to cross the sets of warp strands behind this 
strand of woof, both holding it thereby and open- 
ing space for a throw of the shuttle back again. 



298 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Probably you will find it difficult to understand clearly this 
process of hand weaving, unless you have woven some fabric 
on a simple school loom yourself. 

Skilled hands can make the finest muslins and 
silks on such rude and simple looms. They have 
been in use for ages, and although the spinning 
wheel is mostly discarded today, handlooms like 
this are now busy throughout Asia and even in parts 
of Europe, Central and South America. Some are 
used among the southern Appalachian highlands. 
Why should something better have been desired? 

Probably some of the class have seen a pair of 
wool cards, once used in a pioneer household. They 
resemble the curry combs used to clean horses. 
Their many bent wire teeth slowly carded, or 
combed, the scoured wool into a long, loose rope 
of parallel fibers, ready for spinning. Few are in 
use in America today, but stepping into a great fac- 
tory of the capital city of South Carolina, you may 
overlook long rows of the great carding "engines" 
that prepare cotton for spinning in a similar way. 

Position 5 IT. The Carding Room, great Olym- 
pian Cotton Mills, Columbia, South Carolina 

Compare this scene with those of household crafts. 
In each case, which is more prominent, the worker 
or the machine? What is the source of power and 
movement in each case? What relation has this 
to the number of machines in one building? How 
do these carding engines compare in size, number 
of parts and evident power for rapid work with the 
tools and simple machines still used in peasant 
homes? 

What is the man in the distance carrying on his 



WEAVING COTTON 299 

shoulder? It is like a great roll of cotton batting 
ready to unroll as a broad, flat lap of cotton. It 
will be placed at the other end of one of the row of 
machines before you, and will feed into its rolls. 
Hidden within each machine is a great cylinder 
bristling with fine wire teeth. You see above each 
machine part of the endless apron of long flats, 
whose rows of fine wire teeth pass so close to those 
of the whirling cylinder that they catch away all 
the impurities and short fibers, and thoroughly comb 
out the long fibers. The spiral brushes clean the 
flats. The carded cotton is stripped off within the 
smaller cylinder and then is gathered into the loose 
rope of parallel fibers that you see passing into the 
tall can. Look for such cans in the next scene, a 
spinning room. 

Would hand cards or a carding engine require the more 
manual skill in a workman to produce the results? Which 
would require a thorough education in mechanics? Which 
could best make use of workers possessing strength but 
neither skill nor education ? Which requires able foremen and 
superintendents ? In which case is employment the more 
steady? Which supplies the larger market? 

You are now to step into a modern textile fac- 
tory in Belfast. Where is this city? You will first 
stand in the room where warp yarns are spun. 

Position 6IT. Warping room, factory of the 
famous Irish linen, Belfast, Ireland 

The workmen are at dinner, but as the spinning 
frames can run with little aid, when rightly adjusted, 
except to start the fibers and to connect broken 
strands, it matters little. Notice the machine at 
your left: it does the same work as the spinning 



300 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

wheel. The tall cans are like the distaff, for they 
hold the flax, already drawn out through several 
machines. The whirling sets of rolls in the upper 
part of the machine are drawing it out still more, 
as did the housewife's hands, although you cannot 
see how it is done. Then below are the many 
spindles that twist the fiber into yarn and wind it 
on the bobbins, or spools. The steps are the same, 
but is this machinery simple or complex? 

How many machines can you count? And how 
many spindles on one frame? What power do you 
judge turns the shafting and spindles ? How do you 
think one of these spindles compares in speed and 
steadiness with one on a spinning wheel? And 
how many spinners would it take to do the work of 
this roomful of power machines? Do you wonder 
that even the poor of India and China buy yarn to 
weave instead of spinning it ? 

You are next to stand for a few minutes in one 
of the loom rooms. 

Position 7IT. Plain weaving room (1,000 looms), 
great linen factory, Belfast, Ireland 

What a contrast this mass of machinery is to the 
wooden loom of the busy Japanese mother! Can 
you count or distinguish all the parts of a loom? 
Are the looms simple or complex? At the extreme 
left you can see the warp as it unrolls from the warp 
beams of the second row of looms. Just before you 
are shuttles with their white cops of rilling: one 
lies on the woven cloth of the second loom. On the 
loom to the right you can see the harness that pulls 
the sets of warp threads up and down. But there 



SPINNING AND WEAVING 301 

are no human hands, for the shuttle is thrown and 
the other changes made automatically by the ma- 
chine. 

In one American factory having the newest looms, they 
were left to run alone one noon; at one o'clock many were 
still weaving cloth, while those on which a warp thread had 
broken had stopped themselves to wait for the operatives to 
return. It would take many thousand Asiatic hand looms to 
make as much cloth as is woven in one room of a modern 
factory. Can you explain, then, why the United States is 
able to sell much cloth profitably in China? 

The Industrial Revolution. It was about the 
time of the American Revolution that automatic 
machinery for spinning and weaving was invented 
in England. Having seen and compared the textile 
industry in the home and in the factory, you can 
appreciate the changes that came with the intro- 
duction of power machinery — changes so great as 
to amount to an Industrial Revolution. 

What kind of power was necessary to run the new 
machinery ? Why ? Why were early factories built 
on the banks of swift rivers? Why were inventors 
impelled to perfect the steam engine ? What effect did 
this have upon coal mining? Contrast the old and 
new machines with regard to the material of which 
they were mainly made. What effect must the 
change in textile machinery have had upon iron and 
steel manufacture? 

Formerly people spun and wove on the farms for 
themselves, or in village homes for their neighbors 
or for merchants. When power machinery was 
adopted why were the machines gathered in fac- 
tories? Where did people have to move to get 
work? What effect must the Industrial Revolution 



302 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

have had upon the growth and number of cities in 
Europe and America? Upon the population of 
country districts ? What did the new cities need for 
their hungry workers and busy factories? How 
could they sell the great amount of cloth and other 
wares they made? What changes in methods of 
transportation and travel came, then, as part of the 
Industrial Revolution ? 

What countries of the world have had their in- 
dustrial methods most fully changed, and have many 
factory cities ? What peoples are still unprogressive 
and manufacture most of their requirements in their 
homes? (See pp. 50, 70, 105, 226, 231, 283, etc.) 
What kinds of products do these peoples send to the 
industrially developed nations ? What wares do they 
receive in exchange ? 

Sheep-Raising 

Introduction. Of what value to men are sheep? 
Of what use is their wool to the sheep themselves? 
Of what value to man as compared with cotton, 
flax, or silk? How does wool differ from ordinary 
hair? In what sections of the United States are 
sheep numerous ? In what countries of the world ? 

You are now to stand again on the Colorado pla- 
teaus (see Position 1, Western Scenery), this time 
to study the herd of sheep and their caretakers. 

Position 8IT. Sheep- raising, an extensive industry 
in northern Arizona 

Do these sheep look well kept, or otherwise ? Are 
they well fed ? How does their appearance compare 



SHEEP RAISING 303 

with that of their Mexican shepherd, who stands 
just before you? How does it correspond with the 
nature of their surroundings ? Describe the amount 
and character of the vegetation. What kind of cli- 
mate does it indicate? Why herd sheep in this re- 
gion, as well as on the central prairies? 

Why should the superintendent of the ranch be on 
horseback? Are there other flocks in his charge? 
Are there fences ? Why ? What must be some of 
the duties of the shepherd ? Why is he huddled in a 
blanket suit? Would you like to be a shepherd? 
Contrast the duties and qualifications of a superin- 
tendent and a shepherd. 

We shall next visit the barnyard of a Michigan 
farm, with the farmer and his son, to see some fine 
merino rams. 

Position gIT. Fine results of scientific sheep-rais- 
ing — thoroughbred Rambouillets with magnifi- 
cent pelts 

From the general appearance of these sheep what 
do you infer concerning the care which they have re- 
ceived? And their opportunities for grazing? No- 
tice the farmer's smile of pride. How does his in- 
terest in the animals differ from that of the Mexican 
herder? Why? Do the characteristics of these 
sheep seem appropriate to their owner and their sur- 
roundings ? 

You may now take Positions 8IT and 9IT alter- 
nately to facilitate comparisons. 

Compare the two breeds of sheep in form' and 
pelt. Notice such features as the neck, legs, horns. 



304 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

The Michigan rams are descendants of French sheep, 
and they of Spanish merinos ; while the ancestors of 
the Arizona flock have lived in the care of Mexicans 
since their introduction by the early Spanish settlers. 
Does it pay to breed sheep carefully? What are 
some results of neglect? Since through the pur- 
chase of fine rams a flock can be greatly improved 
in its character and yield of wool in a few years,' 
what must be the sale value of such animals as 
these ? 

You now take your stand in the midst of a flock 
of sheep and lambs on a hillside pasture. 

Position 10IT. Shearing sheep on one of America's 
great sheep ranches 

What are the men near you doing? How? For 
what purpose? Do the sheep mind being clipped? 
(A power-driven machine, or tool, like a barber's 
clipper, is now used on large ranches.) Do the 
fleeces look clean? Why is this to be expected? 
What preparation for carding and spinning will 
wool need, then, that cotton does not ? Into what is 
the wool put for shipment ? 

Compare the sheep next you with those grazing just 
beyond as to size, fleece, etc. Recall the unlike sizes in the 
Arizona flock, and account for the differences here. 

These sheep are raised for mutton as well as for 
their wool. What kind of bodies have been pro- 
duced by breeding? Notice the farmhouses and 
fields, the wooded hills and pasture trees, the rail- 
road : are you in the east or west of the United 
States ? Why is this section adapted to the produc- 
tion of fat and tender lamb and mutton? What 



SHEEP RAISING 305 

would be the effect of bringing sheep of good breed 
from desert ranches to green farms for a time before 
sending them to market ? 

Supplementary Suggestions. Make a collec- 
tion of fabrics made in whole or part from wool, and 
label everyone with its trade name and (so far as 
possible) with the name of the country or state 
where it was manufactured. 

Examine and compare specimens of carpet wools 
from Asia with merino wool or other clothing wools ; 
or if this be impossible contrast the wool of carpets 
with that of fine woolen cloth or underclothing. 

Using the index of your geography, and other 
reference books, find where the production of wool 
is important, and represent the distribution of the 
industry on a map of the world. 

If you live where sheep are kept, get one of the 
best breeders of your neighborhood to give a talk to 
the class on the care of sheep. Or get some one who 
has traveled in the West to describe a sheep ranch 
and its life. Or get some manufacturer of woolens, 
or some able merchant dealing in woolens, to give an 
account of the industry, or the trade, from his stand- 
point. 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 

Cotton From Field to Market 

Texas still raises more cotton than any other state 
or country, despite the weevil. You are now to take 
seven Positions there, that you may study the move- 
ment of cotton from field to mill. 



306 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position iITR. Cotton in cart-loads from the 
fields waiting beside mill where gin will clean it 

Position 2ITR. Cotton gin— one of the greatest 
industrial inventions — separating fiber from seed 

Position 3ITR. Baling cotton — a powerful press 
just releasing a 500 -lb. bale 

Position 4ITR. Packing cotton in cylindrical bales 
after gin has separated and cleaned fiber 

Position 5ITR. A part of 4,000,000 bale yearly 
cotton crop of Texas 

Position 6ITR. goading Texas cotton on river 
barges for shipment to factories 

Position 7ITR. Shipping cotton, from levee near 
growing district, by cars to manufacturing 
center 

How is the cotton taken to the gin? Describe a 
gin house. And a battery of four gins. What 
power is used? How was cotton fiber separated 
from the seeds before Whitney invented the gin? 
In your text book, or an encyclopaedia, find a diagram 
showing the circular saws of the gin, whose teeth 
catch the cotton and pull it through slots too nar- 
row for the seeds to pass. How important is the 
machine to the cotton industry? Watch the seed 
cotton being fed into' the gins above (Position 
2ITR) ; and the openings in the floor below in front 
of the gins, through which the cleaned seeds drop. 

You now follow the cotton to the. presses in the 
gin house : any encyclopaedia will explain their oper- 
ation to you. How large is a bale ? Are they very 
neatly and carefully baled? How are they tied? 
Have you ever tried compressing some cotton bat- 
ting with your hands? How are the bales trans- 
ported to the cotton mills or to the coast cities for 
export? What work do you see negroes doing? 
White men ? 



FLAX AND LINEN 307 

Were Europeans to start the natives of Central 
Africa in extensive cotton culture would they be 
able to quickly and easily arrange for the ginning, 
baling, and transporting of cotton to the coast ? Can 
Africa itself supply capital and intelligence for es- 
tablishing factories and railways and for organizing 
the business of marketing cotton? What are some 
of the advantages whose combination made America 
preeminent as a producer of cotton? 

Flax and Linen 

Suggestions. Secure for the school museum 
some flax seed, flax, tow, and specimens of linen 
fabrics and cordage, to show the uses of flax in your 
home and community. Get fresh seed from a dealer 
in seeds, and grow some flax in the school garden 
or at home. Gather plant fibers from old stalks of 
milkweed and other field plants. Test their strength 
before and after twisting into yarns. Collect some 
deserted birds' nests that are made partly of wild 
fibers. What has become of the gummy substances 
that held the fibers together in the growing plant ? 

You are to stand near the French border of Bel- 
gium, and view a typical Flemish landscape, then to 
step down to the river bank that you may observe 
the workmen more closely. Thereafter you will 
take three Positions at the factories of northeastern 
Ireland, to study some leading steps in linen manu- 
facture. Find Courtrai, Belgium, and the river 
Lys on the map. Find Belfast. 

Position 8ITR. Flax: in great stacks— curing in 
sunny fields near Courtrai, center of Belgium's 
linen industry 



308 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



Position gITR. Flax taken from stacks and soak- 
ed in river I^ys, preparing 
trait Belgium's linen marl 



ed in river X,ys, preparing for spinning, Cour- 

rket 



Position 10ITR. Hatcheling flax, first process in 
making the famous Irish linen, Belfast, Ire- 
land 

Position xxITR. Damask weaving looms, making 
the richly patterned Irish linens, Belfast, Ire- 
land 

Position 12ITR. Bleaching field, near linen mills 
(S.JS.), I,isburn, near Belfast, Ireland 

Retting Flax. Position 8ITR. Note the typical 
features — gently rolling country, land wholly in 
culture, trim cottages, the distant tree-bordered 
roadway, the steeples and factory chimney of the 
town — and describe the scene to your classmates 
as characteristic of northern Belgium. Fine, golden 
flax of the highest value is retted in the river below 
you. (Retting is the process of rotting the plant 
gums that stick the fibers to the bark and pith, so 
that the fiber may be easily cleaned for use. ) Judge 
by the number and size of the stacks along the few 
rods of river bank before you the importance of the 
industry in Belgium, and the extent of country send- 
ing flax to the Lys. Describe the shape of the 
stacks. What advantage in this form? What 
climate does it indicate? Study the method of net- 
ting flax. 

Position 9ITR. Is the stream chosen for this 
process swift or slow? How does this accord with 
the relief of northern Belgium, as shown before 
you and on your maps ? How is flax tied up before 
putting it in the water? (See the farther bank.) 
How is it secured and sunk into the stream? How 
are the bundles of retted flax dried to prevent weak- 



MANUFACTURING LINENS 309 

ening of the fiber itself by continued fermentation, 
or decay? (See Position 8ITR.) Compare this 
slow, wet, laborious work on flax with the treat- 
ment of cotton at a gin. Does the contrast partly 
explain why Americans grow very little flax for its 
fiber? 

After the flax stalks are scutched, that is, broken 
and beaten by machinery to free the fiber from bark 
and pith, it is sent to the linen mills, whither you 
now follow it. 

Manufacturing Linens. Position 10ITR. This 
is real manu-facture — literally handwork. The 
workmen are splitting the coarse, undressed flax 
so as to make fine fibers of dressed line, ready for 
spinning. Of what is the hatchel made? Draw a 
plan of one. How is the flax handled? Under the 
foreman's eye the skilful workers endeavor to make 
the finest flax without making much tow, or short, 
waste fiber. See the heaps of tow. Hatcheling ma- 
chines make more tow and therefore are not used 
with so costly flax as that from the Lys, or when 
preparing for fine linens. Compare again the treat- 
ment given flax and cotton between the field and the 
spinning frame. Do you not perceive some reasons 
why cotton fabrics have replaced linens for most 
purposes during the past century? Do cottons or 
linens cost the more? Why? 

Position nITR. Compare these looms with the 
plain looms the class saw on a previous visit (Posi- 
tion 7IT, page 300). Notice the many cords of the 
harness extending up from the warp strands. And 
the long, looping series of perforated cards. As 



310 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

pins that control the harness cords pass into the 
holes of the card pattern, now one, then another 
set of warp strands is lifted above the flying shut- 
tle. On such looms the intricate patterns of car- 
pets, brocades, etc., are automatically produced. 
What wonders complicated machinery can perform, 
taking the place of patient and skilled handi- 
craft, and placing beautiful products within reach 
of even the industrious poor ! 

Position 12ITR. Does your mother ever bleach 
cloths on the grass, exposed to sun and dew? Ask 
her about it. How does the bleached cloth before 
you look ? Why should there be fine turf for bleach- 
ing fields in Ireland? What chemicals are used for 
bleaching? Most cloths in America and Europe 
are bleached in large bleacheries (factories) by 
chemicals. 



FOODS 

Introduction. Why is bread called the Staff 
of Life? What grains are used for bread flour by 
different peoples ? Which makes the best bread and 
is therefore the most important in commerce? 

What grains have you seen growing? What 
are the steps in their culture? In the harvesting? 
What becomes of the grain grown near you? (Or 
whence does the flour used in your home come?) 

What tools are used in gardening in your com- 
munity? What machines are used for field crops in 
your vicinity? Find out from your parents or 
neighbors how farm tools, machines, and methods 
now in use differ from those of their childhood 
days. Sometimes tools of a half century past are 
stored about old farmsteads or in local museums, 
and may be compared with late models. 

Harvesting Grain 

You are now to take Positions alternately among 
the backward peoples of Eurasia and on the greatest 
grain fields of America. Before taking either of 
the two Positions note the questions directing com- 
parison with the companion Position. The con- 
trasts noted will enable you to understand better 
world commerce in cereals. 

You are to stand first among the reapers on the 
plateau of Spain, then on a harvest field of the Red 
River of the North in Canada. 



312 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position iIP. Harvesting wheat in the Basque 
Province of Guipuzcoa, northern Spain 

Does the work look easy? What are the men 
doing? What tool do they use? What part in the 
work have the women? Why need women help at 
harvest time? 

Position 2IP. A modern harvester — cutting and 
binding— great wheat fields of Manitoba, Canada 

Is this man working hard? Why are no women 
needed here? Look just behind the horses and see 
what the harvester does with the grain it has cut. 
Why so many as three horses? 

Comparison. Compare the relief of the land on 
and about the two fields: which is best adapted to 
farm machinery? Compare the extent of the grain 
fields: is this dependent upon the manner of har- 
vesting? Explain the reasons for your conclusion. 
Compare the number of workers and their speed 
(a rough estimate, of course). Which method do 
you judge the more costly per acre? Which should 
give workmen higher wages? W r hat are some of 
the advantages of the harvester over the sickle? 
Why do these Spanish peasants still reap wheat as 
did their ancestors? 

You are now to see how the straw and wheat are 
separated in Bible lands — the same method was used 
in the times of David and of Jesus. 

Position 3IF. A threshing-floor in the hills of 
Galilee— the women winnowing— Palestine 

How hot and dazzling the sun! Does it show 
you a scene of prosperity or poverty? Why are the 



HARVESTING GRAIN 313 

oxen muzzled? As types of Oriental and Ameri- 
can farm machinery contrast the materials and char- 
acter of the drag they draw with an American har- 
vester. What effect must the trampling of the oxen 
and the rubbing of the drag have upon the heads of 
wheat strewn on the hard ground? What special 
need of winnowing the wheat? Notice the owner 
of the grain in the shade of the wall : what do his 
attitude, and the means of cleaning wheat adopted, 
indicate as to the enterprise of Oriental peoples? 

You now return to a stand on the plains of Mani- 
toba to watch the separation of the ripened wheat 
from the straw there. 

Position 4IF. Wonderful progress of the igth 
century — from fLail to steam thresher — Manitoba, 
Canada 

What would the Galilean peasants think of this 
scene were they transported here as you are? See 
the men pitching sheaves of wheat from the two 
wagons into the thresher. Does the machine work 
slowly or rapidly? What kind of power is used? 
Notice the fuel thoughtfully : how much does it cost 
the farmer? Why class it as a by-product? Why 
find uses for by-products? Would one farmer be 
likely to possess the capital and special skill required 
by such an outfit ? What do the great wheels of the 
engine indicate will be done with the outfit when the 
wheat of this farm is threshed ? 

If time allows step nearer and to the other side of the 
thresher. 



314 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 4lFa. Sacking wheat from the thresher,— harvest- 
ing in the great wheat fields of Manitoba 

What do you see being thrown into the machine? And 
what comes out of the pipe where the man stands with a 
bag? Do the men or the machine do the hard work? Judg- 
ing from the exterior of the thresher, is it a simple or com- 
plicated machine? Would uneducated Orientals easily master 
its management and repair? 

Comparison. What seems to be true as to the 
relative amount of wheat on the Galilean threshing 
floor and that of this Manitoba farm? How long 
do you think it would take the steam thresher to 
separate the wheat at the Galilean farm? What 
would be the result if Manitoba had no better 
threshing machine than that of Bible times? In 
each case how wide a market does the farmer sup- 
ply? Why use horses in America and oxen in the 
Orient ? 

Apply directions for the previous comparisons 
to the following scenes. 

Transportation of Grain 

You are now to stand among the farmers of Rus- 
sia and look down to the wharves and port of the 
Black Sea city of Odessa. 

Position 5IF. Wheat for export at South Russia's 
great seaport, Odessa 

Here old and new methods of transportation meet : 
explain the statement. How do the farmers get their 
wheat to Odessa? Comparing these teams with 
those seen at the American thresher, what impres- 
sion of Russians do you get? Are the oxen yoked? 
What does this indicate ? How would an American 
farmer feel if obliged to wait hours before unload- 



TRANSPORTATION OF GRAIN 315 

ing his grain at the elevator ? Can American farm- 
ers sell wheat from their own teams at seaport 
wharves ? Which farmers have the advantage, then, 
in getting their wheat cheaply to the European mar- 
kets? What means of bringing wheat from the 
interior of Russia do you see near the wharves? 
What means of transporting wheat to western Eu- 
rope do you see? 

You now return to America and board a lake 
steamer which is being loaded with wheat from the 
elevator in the distance. 

Position 6IF. Loading steamers with wheat from 
elevators, Fort William, Ontario 

See the rushing stream, of wheat! In the chute 
beyond there's another. Are the men working hard 
to load the vessel ? What does the great brick chim- 
ney tell you as to the source of power, for moving 
the wheat? The river of grain flows on a broad 
belt that moves through the long shed you see ex- 
tending from elevator to wharf; when turning a 
corner the grain drops to another belt. Why is the 
passage-way raised on posts? Describe briefly the 
shape of a grain elevator. Where are the windows ? 
The machinery for moving and weighing the grain 
is mostly in the upper part, while great bins for 
storing grain in bulk are beneath. When grain 
moves like this stream would a farmer's team or a 
railway train need to delay in unloading, or a 
steamer in shipping a cargo? What characteristic 
of the people of temperate North America therein 
illustrated ? 



316 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Comparison. Is grain handled more rapidly in 
bags, as in Russia, or in bulk, as in America? 
Which requires the more manual labor? In which 
case is the grain better protected from the weather? 
Which requires the more costly appliances for hand- 
ling the grain? Which do you think would handle 
grain at the cheaper rate per bushel ? 

Tests. Observe and describe men at work plough- 
ing grainfields in the Eastern world and in West- 
ern America, applying the skill you have gained 
in comparing primitive and modern methods of 
harvesting to pointing out, now, instructive contrasts 
in tillage, tools and methods that may be observed 
from these two new standpoints : 

Position 6IFa. Plowing in the fertile Plain of Sharon, 

Zydda, Palestine 
Position 6IFb. latest methods in man's ancient occupation 

— ploughing, on a prairie farm, Illinois 

Take your stand on the rolling grainfields of the 
Columbia plateau and study methods of harvesting 
there. 

Position 61Fd. Evolution of the sickle and fLail—33-horse 
team combined harvester — Walla Walla, Washington 

Compare the harvesting machinery used on this 
dry plateau, where ripe grain may safely stand, with 
that usual in parts of America where summer rains 
are common. Poole's Index will refer you to maga- 
zine articles that describe harvesting in the Pacific 
States. 

Commerce in Grain. A century ago New Eng- 
land and old England raised the great bulk of their 
flour and other staple foods, as tropical and eastern 
peoples do today. Now the people of great indus- 



COMMERCE IN GRAIN 317 

trial regions with crowded factory cities would soon 
starve if they depended on near farms. The Indus- 
trial Revolution transformed agriculture. How was 
grain sown, reaped, and ground to flour in America 
a century ago? What changes since then? How 
have plows and harrows changed? What lands of 
the world still use primitive methods in agriculture ? 
Are farm laborers paid higher wages in India and 
in Russia or in America? Why did Americans in- 
vent the gang plow, seed drill, reaper, *and the steam 
thresher? Why were these necessary to enable us 
to sell wheat to Europe profitably in competition 
with the farmers of Europe? What wheat fields 
are farther from the sea than those of North Ameri- 
ca? W r hy is the grain elevator necessary that we 
may compete with Argentina fields of wheat and 
corn, and with others as favorably placed? Show 
the application of the old proverb, "Necessity is the 
mother of invention." 

What countries and sections of the world import 
foods? What lands and sections raise foods for 
export? To what peoples does America sell flour? 
To what countries do we sell agricultural machin- 
ery? 

An interesting, brief account of changes in agri- 
cultural tools and methods is given in Mowry's 
American Inventions and Inventors (Silver, Bur- 
dett & Co.). Chamberlain's Hozv We Are Fed is 
an excellent supplementary reader, also. 



318 geography through the stereoscope 

Tea 

Introduction. Examine some tea that has been 
allowed to soak in water : what do you find it to be ? 
Name and locate the countries in which tea is 
grown. What conditions of heat and moisture are 
best suited for the cultivation of tea ? 

Locate Hankow in China. For what is it noted ? 
Why is its location favorable for commerce? De- 
scribe the situation of Ceylon. What other country 
in Asia is noted for tea production? 

In our first Position we shall visit a tea plantation 
in Ceylon. 

Position 7IP. Coolie tea pickers at work, in the 
beautiful Nanuoya Valley, near Nuwara Mliya, 
Ceylon 

Upon what kind of land is this plantation situ- 
ated? How are the tea plants set out? Of what 
sex are most of the tea pickers? What does their 
dress tell you about their condition in life? (What 
do you infer about the pay received for this work?) 
What does the presence of the white overseer lead 
you to infer about the ownership of this plantation ? 
What European nation possesses large interests in 
India? 

In the next Position we take our stand in the in- 
terior of Japan. 

Position 8 IP. Girls picking tea on a famous planta- 
tion of TJji, among the sunny hills of old Japan 

From the general appearance of the people and 
the condition of the bushes what do you infer con- 
cerning the prosperity of this tea farm? Describe 
the tea plant : its size and shape and the appearance 



TEA 319 

of the leaves. How does most of the foliage seen 
upon the bushes differ in size from the tea leaf of 
commerce (recall the moistened specimen) ? Which 
leaves — young or old — are selected by the pickers? 
How does this add to the difficulty of the work? 
To the time required to fill those baskets? (What 
effect does it have upon the shape of the shrub?) 

From the deck of a steamer in mid-stream you 
are now to view the scene upon the water-front at 
Hankow, China. 

Position gIF. Coolies unloading tea at Hankow, 
the great tea market of interior China 

Compare the way a cargo of tea is unloaded at 
Hankow and the way it would be handled in Ameri- 
ca? (How do you account for the difference?) 
In what kind of boxes is tea packed ? How are these 
boxes marked? (Where have you seen any?) 
With what are they lined ? Why ? 

This old scow in the foreground is a wharf-boat or land- 
ing stage. Why is a floating wharf necessary? For what 
purpose are those upright, white sticks at one side of the 
flight of steps ? In what stage is the river at present ? 

Supplementary Work. Find out about Han- 
kow in your supplementary reader .or in an encyclo- 
paedia. Read in a large dictionary the description of 
the process by which tea is prepared for market. 
Find out what you can about the experiment of 
growing tea in South Carolina. 

Summary. Be able to give an intelligent account 
of an afternoon upon a tea plantation. Describe the 
people at work there and tell how they gather the 
tea. Include also a description of the kind of land 



320 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

upon which the tea plant grows. Why is that situa- 
tion necessary for a tea farm ? How does tea differ 
in this respect from rice? 

Why is it desirable to encourage the cultivation of 
tea in America ? How is the cost of picking tea in 
America likely to compare with the cost in Eastern 
countries ? Why ? What effect may this have upon 
the success of the enterprise ? 

Rice 

Introduction. Examine a few grains of rice. 
That which we buy at the store has had the outer 
covering or husks removed. These husks are used 
as packing material : perhaps a storekeeper in your 
locality has received some. Stalks of the plant 
showing the ''heads" in which the kernels are borne 
would also be a valuable addition to the school 
museum. Plant some rice in a very moist soil and 
watch for the tender shoots. 

Half the people of the world depend upon rice 
for food. The rice plant produces more abundantly 
and surely, when properly cultivated, than any other 
grain. In what parts of Asia is rice raised ? Why ? 
In one of these countries the climate, aided by irri- 
gation, favors the raising of two crops per year: 
which country must this be? Where in the United 
States is it grown? Compare the conditions in 
America with those in Asia. 

What are the dried stalks called and for what 
are they used? 

You will view the different steps in the culti- 
vation of rice from four Positions. Your first Posi- 



RICE 321 

tion is taken upon the island of Luzon in the 
Philippines. To whom do those islands belong? 

Position 10IF. Typical Filipino farming scene, a 
rice field and water buffalo— resting between 
furrows— Luzon, P. I. 

Describe the condition of the paddy field. (Com-* 
pare it with the scene, "A rice farm amid the 
luxuriant hills of Ceylon" p. 238.) How deep does 
the man sink in? What part of the work of pre- 
paring the field is now being done? What animal 
familiar to us does the water buffalo resemble? 
What sort of an implement is being used? What 
two-fold purpose does this mud wall at the right 
serve (the scene in Ceylon will help you to answer 
this question) ? 

The carabao or water buffalo is almost as strong as an 
elephant but, to avoid exhaustion, it must be allowed to wallow 
frequently in the mud. It is native to tropical swamps and 
jungles and its broad hoofs fit it well to live in those places. 
Why is it a very useful animal for rice culture? 

For our next Position we shall go to the interior 
of Japan. 

Position 11IF. Pulling up young rice ready for 
transplanting— spring work on a Japanese farm 

Describe these people and the kind of place in 
which they are working. Note how thick the young 
rice grows in this field : about a month or six weeks 
ago this land was seeded broadcast. Infer a rea- 
son for what these people are doing. What evi- 
dence do you see of what they have accomplished? 
Observe those long strands of straw lying across the 
tops of the growing rice plants; what use is made 
of them? 



322 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

What variations in the level of cultivated land do you 
notice? How are the different portions separated from each 
other? What is the reason for arranging the paddy field 
in this way? 

From the next Position we shall observe another 
important step in the cultivation of rice. 

Position 12IF. Patient laborers transplanting rice- 
shoots on a farm in beautiful interior of Japan, 
near Kyoto 

How does rice planting differ from the kind of 
farming carried on near your home? Compare it 
with the planting of grain in America. With mar- 
ket gardening. How deep is the water in this 
field? What would be the effect of the hot sun on 
the water and plants if the depth were shallower? 
Why do you think this work would be tiresome and 
unhealthful? What do the young rice shoots 
look like? How are they arranged in planting? 
What are these large bundles of plants for? How 
does this field differ in level from those further 
back? Why? Look again at the scene "Charming 
valleys and mountains of interior . Ceylon" (Posi- 
tion 3, p. 238), and observe the numerous variations 
in level of the paddy fields. 

In this scene in Japan contrast the characteristics 
and appearance of the surrounding country with 
the rice fields. 

From the next Position we shall view the methods 

of harvesting employed in Japan. 

Position 13IF. Cutting and sheaving rice, the Jap- 
anese " Staff of Z,ife,» N.W. over Katsukake to 
the great volcano Asama 

What other grains does the rice plant at matur- 



rice 323 

ity resemble? How tall does the stalk appear to 
grow? What is that laborer in a stooping position 
doing? Describe what is done with the rice after 
cutting? How are the sheaves carried away? In 
what condition was this field when the ground was 
ploughed and planted ? What must have been done 
as the time for ripening the grain arrived? 

Compare the methods of harvesting rice in Japan 
and Ceylon (See "Country home with paddy fields 
and natives harvesting rice/' p. 238). 

What seems to be the condition of the soil in this field at 
present? What evidence do you see of the way in which 
the rice shoots were arranged in planting? 

Supplementary. Describe the appearance of 
yonder mountain. What was its probable origin? 
What evidence of the action of running water do 
you see upon its sides ? What do you infer concern- 
ing the amount of rainfall here? 

Summary. What kind of land is best adapted 
for the growth of rice? Describe the different 
steps in the cultivation of the crop. What re- 
lation is there between the method of transplant- 
ing employed in Japan and the scarcity of avail- 
able farm land? Make comparisons between the 
methods used and the people employed in rice cul- 
ture in Japan, India and the Philippine Islands. 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 

Rice in the United States 

Position iIFR. Harvester cutting rice on a big 
plantation in Texas 



324 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 2IPR. Hauling rice to the thresher, show- 
ing canal from which growing crop is hooded, 
Texas 

Position 3IFR. Steam thresher at work in a rice 
held, preparing the crop for the mill, Texas 

Position 4IFR. Modern methods used on Texas 
rice plantation, steam thresher at work, in the 
field 

Name and locate again those States in which rice 
is cultivated. What climatic conditions common to 
this region are favorable for the growth of rice? 

Describe the surface of the land upon which the 
rice plantations in Texas are located (Positions 
iIFR, 2IFR, 4IFR). How does it differ from the. 
land in India and Japan in which the paddy fields 
are located ? What other areas in the United States 
does it resemble? Why is rice not grown there? 

Is the water in the canal at present high or low? 
How does the level of the rice field compare with 
the banks of the canal? What advantage is there 
in this ? Of what importance is the canal in the cul- 
tivation of rice? 

How do the methods of harvesting the rice crop 
in Texas differ from those seen in Asia? Why are 
so many horses required to draw the harvester? 
How is the crop gathered up and hauled to the 
thresher? What work does the thresher perform? 
(How is that work done in Asia?) How is the 
rice packed for shipment to the mill (Position 
3IFR) ? In Asia the rice stalks are kept whole: 
(What for?) What is the custom in Texas? 

How does the price of labor in Asia compare 
with that in America? What effect will this have 
upon the cost of production? How does the use of 
harvesting machinery help to offset this? Upon 



GRAZING AND MEAT PACKING 325 

what will success of the American planter in com- 
peting with foreign-grown rice depend? 

Read about the cultivation of rice in an encyclo- 
paedia or in Workers of the Nation, Vol. II, pp. 
J22-726. 

Grazing and Meat Packing 

Whence comes the beef sold in your local mar- 
kets? How were cities supplied with meat before 
rails connected plains and prairies with the populous 
eastern states? You are now to take three Posi- 
tions in the far Southwest, and three in the Middle 
West, to study typical features of the live-stock in- 
dustry. 

Position 5IFR. A cattle round-up in Arizona,— "cut- 
ting out" the cows and calves 

Position 6IFR. The spring round-up, Sierra Bonita 
Ranch, the greatest cattle ranch in Arizona 

Position 7 IFR. Cowboys examining a yearling's 
brand to settle a dispute, Sierra Bonita Ranch, 
Arizona 

Position 8IFR. How grass and sunshine are turned 
into beef— steers grazing in green pastures, Illi- 
nois 

Position 9IFR. The great Union Stock Yards, the 
greatest live-stock market in the world, Chicago, 

Position 10IFR. The cooling room, Armour's great 
packing house, Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 111. 

Describe the cowboys of the Far West and their 
work. Compare range cattle with the dairy animals 
familiar to you. What natural vegetation on the 
ranges? Why is grazing, rather than farming or 
manufacturing, the characteristic occupation of the 
western plains and plateaus? 



326 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Contrast the vegetation and the cattle of Illinois 
with those of Arizona. Account for the differences 
noted. Why keep range cattle on prairie farms a 
few weeks before sending them to market? Why 
more cattle per acre in the central states than on 
the plateau states? 

What impressions of the extent of the packing 
business of Chicago do you gain from observations 
there? Describe the stock yards. 

You should supplement your own observations by 
reading the experiences of others, as in Our Coun- 
try West (Perry, Mason & Co.), or C. A. Mc- 
Murry's account of a cattle ranch in his Type 
Studies in United States Geography. Poole's In- 
dex will refer you to illustrated articles on ranch 
life and on the packing industry in the files of maga- 
zines at your public library. 

Corn and Pork 

Corn furnishes the most valuable grain crop of 
America. For what is corn used? Copy a sketch 
map of the Corn Belt as given in your text book. 
You are now to take your Positions in the Middle 
West to study corn in the field and a type of its 
uses. 

Position 11IFR. In the great corn Gelds of eastern 
Kansas 

Position 12IFR. Twentieth century harvesting — 
machine cutting and binding corn in a Michigan 
farmer's £eld 

Position 13IFR. Genuine corn- fed pork — feeding 
hogs in a prairie pasture— Illinois 

Position 14IFR. A half mile of pork— Armour's 
great packing house, Chicago 



CORN AND PORK FISHING 327 

Choosing adjectives carefully, describe the Kan- 
sas cornfield. Why compare the grove to an island ? 
Why may corn be taller in Kansas than in Michi- 
gan? Compare the harvesting of corn with that 
of wheat. How is corn harvested near your home? 
What relations have the scenes viewed from the last 
two standpoints to those in the cornfields? 

Why is wheat preferred to corn for bread ? Why 
is corn preferred as food for cattle, swine, and 
poultry? Contrast the production of beef and of 
pork, as you have seen each at your standpoints in 
the central and western states. Why produce pork 
in Illinois rather than in Arizona? 

Tell your classmates what was the most surpris- 
ing fact you learned on this field trip. Which the 
most interesting scene. Which the most impressive. 
What the most important new truth you learned. 

Fishing 

What is the typical fish caught off the New Eng- 
land and the Newfoundland coast? What one is 
taken in the rivers from Oregon to Alaska? In 
what forms does each reach your home table? You 
are now to take boat on the Columbia river, also 
on Puget Sound, and to stand on the wharves of 
Gloucester, Massachusetts, to study some typical 
scenes in the fishing industry. Locate these stand- 
points on the map. 

Position 15IFR. Seining for salmon in the Columbia 
river— hauling in the seine— Oregon 

Position 16IFR. Seining chenook salmon, largest 
variety known, Columbia River, Oregon 

Position 17IFR. "A pot full of fish"— Trap fishing 
for salmon on Puget Sound, Washington 



328 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 18IFR. Br ailing— taking salmon from the 
trap for the great canneries, Puget Sound, Wash- 
ington 

Position iglFR. What "captains courageous" bring 
home; cleaning codfish on a Cape Ann wharf, 
Gloucester, Mass. 

Position 20IFR. "Pish out of water;" drying cod 
from Grand Banks on racks at a Cape Ann wharf, 
Gloucester, Mass. 

While noting the rushing spans of horses, don't 
overlook the buoys that mark the line of net paid out 
from the boats. Describe this method of catching 
salmon. Tell the class how a small river canning 
factory looks. What is another method of securing 
salmon? How large are these fish? How abun- 
dant? McMurry's Type Studies in United States 
Geography tells how the trap you saw is constructed. 

Tell your mates about Gloucester wharves; the 
fishermen, the racks or flakes, the fish houses, the 
glimpse of the city. Describe the two steps you have 
seen in curing the fish. Why are the flakes made 
with triangular slats? Read McMurry's account of 
the cod fisheries. Read Kipling's story for boys, 
Captains Courageous. 



Whaling 

Whaling is not a "food industry" but it can be 
studied most conveniently along with fishing. 

You are to take several standpoints on whale ships 
in Baffin Bay. Where is this ? Why are not whales 
abundant now in temperate waters? What stories 
have you read about adventures of whalers? 

Position 21IFR. The whalers "Diana" and "Nova 
Zembla" cruising in the Arctic— Dexterity Harbor 
and Baffin Land 



WHALING FRUIT RAISING 329 

Position 22IFR. A veteran harpooner, beside his 
harpoon gun, on an Arctic whaler, Baffin Bay 

Position 23IFR. Loading the fLippers and blubber 
of a great whale, a capture in Baffin Bay 

Position 24IFR. Whaling in Baffin Bay— taking 
out the whale f s "bone" {worth $8,000) 

Picture to the class an early summer scene (Po- 
sition 21IFR) in the Arctic. What type of vessel 
is used for whaling there? Why the funnel? De- 
scribe the principal weapon used in capturing a 
whale. What parts of the whale are of value? How 
are they secured? What kind of men are the sail- 
ors? What dangers must they meet? What uses 
have the products of the whale fishery ? What sub- 
stitutes have come into use since whales became 
scarce? A brief account of the industry and its his- 
tory is given in American Inventions and Inventors. 

Fruit Raising in California 

What fruits are raised for market near you? 
What kinds come to your home from California? 
You are now to take three standpoints, some fifty 
miles east of Los Angeles, amid the orange groves. 

Position 25IFR. Redlands, and the beautiful San 
Bernardino valley, from Smiley Heights, Cali- 
fornia 

Position 26IFR. Irrigating an orange grove, River- 
side, California 

Position 27IFR. Picking oranges, Riverside, Cali- 
fornia 

How much of the land seems devoted to fruit? 
How are the trees arranged ? Describe one. Notice 
the ground beneath the orchard : what culture is 
given? Are apple and peach orchards in your com- 
munity as well cultivated ? How is water supplied ? 



330 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

How does the surface form of the land favor irri- 
gation? What value have the mountains, snow- 
capped in winter, for irrigation? A good general 
account of irrigation is given in Fairbanks' The 
Western United States. How is the fruit gathered 
and prepared for transportation? Judge the pros- 
perity of the industry by the number and character 
of the homes you see and the men at work. Why is 
it profitable for this region to devote many square 
miles to fruits alone? How does climate favor the 
industry? How luxuriant the roses! 

Sugar in America 

From what plants is the sugar for your home 
table obtained? Where are they grown in Ameri- 
ca? You are to visit the cane fields of Cuba and 
Porto Rico, the sugar levee at New Orleans, and a 
sugar factory in Michigan. 

Position 28IFR. Plantation and sugar mill at 
Caguas— between San Juan and Guayama— Porto 
Rico 

Position 29IFR. Cutting sugar-cane on a planta- 
tion in Cuba 

Position 30IFR. Hauling carloads of sugar-cane 
into the mill, sugar plantation, Caracas, Cuba 

Position 31IFR. Evaporators where purified beet- 
juice loses water by cooking, and becomes syrup 
— Michigan 

Position 32TFR. Diffusion batteries where juice is 
extracted from sugar beets, Menominee, Mich 

Position 33IFR. Centrifugals, where crystallized 
sugar is separated from syrup by whirling mo- 
tion, Michigan 

Position 34TFR. "The sweetest spot'' on earth- 
sugar levee — New Orleans 

What kind of land is chosen for growing sugar- 
cane? Describe the growing cane. How is the 



COFFEE 331 

ground prepared? And the cane harvested? Pic- 
ture a cane sugar mill. And the interior of a beet 
sugar factory. Why is sugar production so largely 
in the hands of corporations and wealthy plantation 
owners? How is the raw sugar transported to a 
refinery? Read about sugar production in Cham- 
berlain's How We Are Fed, in McMurry's Type 
Studies in United States Geography, and in Car- 
penter's North America. 

Coffee 

The United States imports more coffee than any 
other country. Whence does it come? You are to 
stand "beside coffee pickers in Ceylon, and to see 
how the berries are cured in Mexico and Porto 
Rico. 

Position 35IPR. Coolies picking coffee on Sir 
Thomas t,ipton f s estate, at Dambutenne, interior 
Ceylon 

Position 36IFR. Delicious product of the a Hot 
Lands," coffee on the drying floors— near Cor- 
doba, Mexico 

Position 37IFR. Drying coffee, in the rich coffee 
district of Porto Rico 

Position 38IFR. Crude native method of husking 
coffee, at Amatlan, near Cordoba, Mexico 

Describe the coffee plant. Compare it with that 
yielding tea. How are the berries picked? How 
cured ? Get >a bottle of coffee berries in the husk, 
raw coffee, roasted coffee, and ground coffee from 
some importing firm for the school cabinet. Read 
about the coffee industry in Chamberlain's How 
We Are Fed, and in Carpenter's South America. 



332 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Compare rude Mexican methods with those in use 
where the industry is highly developed. 

Bananas 

Find on your map the location and names of the 
islands composing the West Indies and the states 
in Central America. You are to study the banana 
industry from standpoints in these places and in 
the Hawaiian Islands. 

Position 3gIFR. In the heart of a banana planta- 
tion, Hawaiian Island 

Position 40IFR. Looking (W.) over largest banana 
field in the world — United Fruit Company's plan- 
tation— Zent, Costa Rica 

Position 41IFR. Among the finest bananas in the 
world — shipping station on a great banana plan- 
tation, Zent, Costa Rica 

Position 42IFR, Young banana plants— growing 
prospects of a country home near Mayaguez, 
Porto Rico 

Position 43IFR. Carrying bananas to market, Ja- 
maica 

Position 44IFR. Indian "dug- outs*' on the Chagres 
river, bringing bananas, the chief export of Pan- 
ama, to Gatun 

Have you ever seen a bunch of green bananas? 
Tell the class just how they look when hanging on 
the tree. Better still, give an account of a visit to 
either a large or a little banana plantation, describ- 
ing the workers, their homes and surroundings, the 
young plants, the trees in full bearing, and the ways 
of getting the bananas to the steamers that shall 
bear them north to the United States. Blackboard 
sketches of the trees, homes, and transportation 
methods will make your presentation more valuable. 



tobacco industry 333 

Tobacco 

You are to stand in two tropical tobacco planta- 
tions — in Cuba and Jamaica. 

Position 45IFR. A typical tobacco plantation, Prov- 
ince of Havana, Cuba 

Position 46IFR, The largest field of tobacco in the 
world, Montpelier, Jamaica 

Compare the fields of tobacco with crops more fa- 
miliar to you. What part of the tobacco plant is 
used ? How is this part gathered ? Notice the shed 
and the barn on the Jamaican plantation : what use 
do you judge each has? Why should a barn that 
may be opened to the air be best for curing tobacco? 
Tell your classmates about the laborers you saw at 
work. Get some tobacco seed and grow some plants 
in your school garden. The leaves and stems can 
be gathered and cured, and the following year 
steeped in water to make a poisonous liquid with 
which to spray plants infested by harmful insects. 



MINING AND MANUFACTURING 

Introduction. What materials used in building 
houses or roads are dug from the earth near your 
home? If there is a quarry near, visit it and learn 
how the workmen break up a ledge for road ma- 
terials, or get out good sized blocks of stone for 
other uses. Learn also how the blocks are prepared 
for use and transported. 

From what place does the coal that is used at 
your home come? What other common materials 
are obtained from mines? Directed by your teach- 
er's questions, review whatever you have previously 
learned about mines and methods of mining. 

Draw a sketch map showing the distribution of iron mines 
in the United States. (See map in textbook.) Draw a 
circle and shade a sector that shall represent the proportion 
of our supply of iron ore now obtained near Lake Superior. 
(Refer to a commercial geography.) 

Lake Superior Iron Mines 

We are now to visit several mines of the Mesabi 
Range in Minnesota. There are two good maps of 
the region in Adams' Commercial Geography: why 
not enlarge them on heavy paper for your teacher to 
use with the class? Find Duluth on a map. We 
shall observe work at mines in a town on the height 
of land, fifty miles northwest of Duluth. 

Hundreds of feet underground the miners are at 
work. They have descended the shaft, a vertical 
tunnel, in the cage, or mine elevator, and have trav- 
eled along the drifts, or horizontal tunnels, to their 



LAKE SUPERIOR IRON MINES 335 

work. We are now to stand at the heading, or end 
of a drift, and watch some miners at work. 

Position iIM. Iron miners at work in an under- 
ground "drift," Sellers Mine, Hibbing, Minn. 

Can you realize the tons of rock above this heading? What 
if the roof of the drift should cave in, now, under the 
enormous pressure? Why place stout logs beside and above 
us? And why so narrow a tunnel? 

How damp the air ! How little the candles can illume the 
pitch darkness when our lights are gone! What a lonesome 
sound the clink, clink of the hammer! Would you like to 
be a miner? 

What are these sinewy miners doing? Recall 
some time when you have watched men at work with 
drill and hammer, and judge the use of the long- 
handled auger. How do you explain the mass of 
fine ore heaped against the solid front of the ore 
body ? What process comes between the use of ham- 
mer, drill and auger, and the use of the shovels you 
see? 

When other work permits, you may take stand on a train 
of ore cars above a famous copper mine of this region, and 
observe the buildings that contain the hoisting and ventilat- 
ing machinery for a shaft. 

Position iIMa. Copper ore just hoisted up the shaft. Calu- 
met and Hecla. mines, Michigan. 

See also the standpoints listed under the Library Reference 
Groups on coal and copper. 

We now are to enter a mine near the one we visit- 
ed at Hibbing and where the ore is not deeply cov- 
ered. 

Position 2TM. Open-pit iron-mining with five-ton 
steam shovels (N. W.), Hibbing, Minn. 

How does this enormous quarry-like excavation differ 
from the Sellers mine? For one thing it is open to the sky; 



336 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

we can see the trees and buildings on its distant rim. Thence 
the forest land slopes to the plains of Manitoba. What city 
and what lake are behind you to the southeast? 

Compare the methods of working the two kinds 
of mines. For example contrast sinking a shaft with 
the labor of stripping, or uncovering, the ore body in 
this mine. How do you distinguish the rock and 
soil cover from the ore ? How much of the ore body 
can be removed in each case? Notice how the mine 
is worked, in terraces : can you see advantages in 
this? How is the ore transported? Describe the 
cars used. 

Notice the workmen far down on the lowest level. 
Estimate the depth and extent of the mine. What 
an immense body of ore is being opened up: and 
this is but one of many mines in this vicinity, while 
there are a number of ranges of like importance in 
the Lake Superior region. You can now some- 
what better appreciate that these deposits constitute 
one of the greatest stores of iron ore suitable for 
steel making that have been discovered in the world. 

Can you see the great steam shovel, marked by 
a distant jet of steam ? We now go to another mine 
and stand beside such a machine as it loads a train 
with ore. 

Position 3IM. Digging iron ore with steam-shovel 
and dumping on train— open-pit mine, Hibbing, 
Minn* 

What step in the process of loading a car with 

ore is now being taken? What seems to be the 

condition of the ore as it is scooped away from a 

terrace slope? Notice the three great steel teeth on 

the lip of the scoop, and compare them with the 



LAKE SUPERIOR IRON MINES 337 

deep grooves that score the face of the ore. When 
the scoop swings around, is lowered by its massive 
beam, and then is pulled up by stout chains, what 
happens to the ore? Why should the steam shovel 
be set on wheels and these on a track? 

Why not use such machines in the drifts of the 
Sellers mine? Compare blasting at the head of a 
drift, and working with a steam shovel along the 
side of a terrace, as to difficulty, speed, and prob- 
able cost. 

Does the use of such machinery indicate that common 
laborers are abundant or scarce in America? That wages are 
high or low? That capital is available or not? 

When time allows, perhaps after the school session closes, 
return to the mine for further study of the great excavation 
and of the machines that have done the work, from two 
additional standpoints : 

Position 3lMa. Stripping off surface earth with steam 
shovels, Mahoning open-pit iron mine, Minn. 

Position 3lMb. A five-ton steam shovel and its crew in an 
open-pit iron mine, Hibbing, Minn. 

Comparisons. Write a comparison of the open 
pit mines of the Lake Superior region with mines 
where a shaft and drifts must be used. Consider 
the position of the ore body, the methods of free- 
ing and handling the ore, and the relative expense 
of the two methods. 

Read about mines and mining in your geographi- 
cal readers, such as Chamberlain's Hozv We Are 
Sheltered (Macmillan), and Green's Coal and the 
Coal Mines (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.). Such 
pupils as have the time should study the mining of 
coal, copper ore, and gold from the standpoints 
named in the Library Reference Groups. Gather and 



338 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

mount a collection of photographs and half-tone 
pictures illustrating the operations of mining in dif- 
ferent regions. 

Transportation of Iron Ore 

Introduction. To secure iron the ore must be 
melted, and to effect this coke made from soft coal 
is used. Are the centers of iron manufacture nearer 
the great coal fields or the Lake Superior iron 
ranges? Where were their iron ores formerly ob- 
tained? Where are the industrial centers that use 
the pig iron from the furnaces? What, then, are 
some of the reasons for freighting ore to southern 
lake ports and to Pittsburgh, in preference to build- 
ing furnaces at Duluth? 

You are to visit several ports of the Great Lakes 
to study the methods of loading and unloading the 
vessels that transport iron ore. The scenes studied 
will help you to understand how America, even 
though its richest deposits of coal and iron are far 
apart, can produce more and cheaper iron and steel 
than other countries. 

We now take our stand high on the shores of 
Lake Superior, where the ore from the mines of 
Hibbing rolls past us down to the wharves. The 
Mesabi range is fifty miles behind us, and the out- 
let of Lake Superior at Sault Ste. Marie, whither 
we shall soon follow the ore, is 300 miles distant 
to our front. 

Position 4IM. Docks with two miles frontage, hold- 
ing zoo, 000 tons of iron ore, Two Harbors, Mich. 

This is the kind of dock where ore carrying 



TRANSPORTATION OF IRON ORE 339 

steamers are loaded. How toy-like the trains upon 
them! By comparison estimate the length and 
height of a' dock. Recall the elevated side tracks 
at coal sheds or coal pockets near your home, and 
infer a reason for the unusual height of these 
docks. Describe the way in which they are built 
up. 

How many trains do you see unloading? How 
many steamships could moor beside the docks ? Try 
to realize the enormous movement of ore made 
possible by such docks at several northern lake 
ports. 

What makes the little body of water before us a good 

harbor? Beyond the point is the open lake, a mighty inland 

ocean. Smoke marks a steamship. ' Haze obscures the 

horizon, blending water and sky. 

You are now to take your stand on an ore dock at 
a port near the northern end of Lake Michigan. 

Position 5IM. Pockets of iron-ore (160 tons each) 
on long dock, ready for shipment, ( I£. ) Escanaba, 
Michigan 

Here we are. A train has just left its load of ore. 
Did it fall beside or between the tracks ? What kind 
of a bottom must the cars have? Recall how the 
ends of the cars that you saw in the open pit mines 
slope in to the free space between the trucks: what 
advantage now evident in this? How much work 
to be done with the shovel? 

Of what are the docks built? How must they 
have been constructed, since, as you see, the ore is 
held up within them? Notice the many arc lights: 
would it be good economy to let costly steamers, 
docks and trains lie idle through the night? What 
need for haste in late autumn ? 



340 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Notice the shafting and cog wheels within the outer rail- 
ing. Have you seen similar machinery for raising the gates 
of a mill or dam? This is worked by the iron bar near you 
and releases ore from the great bins in the docks. 

You are now to stand on the deck of a freight 
steamer beneath a Duluth ore dock. 

Position 6IM, Aboard a lake steamer loading with 
iron ore from gigantic docks, Duluth, Minn, 

How does the ore get from the dock to the steam- 
er's hold? (What force moves the ore from train 
to dock, and thence to the steamer? Is there any 
cheaper power?) Why have so many hatches in a 
steamer's deck? Troughs from the dock are still 
nearer together : wherever a steamer moors, a trough 
can be lowered into a hatchway. How are the 
troughs raised or lowered? Need a steamer wait 
long for a cargo? 

What two means of closing the hatchways are 
evident ? Why are they needed on the stormy lakes ? 
Of what material is the steamer mainly built? No- 
tice the three spare propeller blades beyond the sec- 
ond hatchway: they are duplicates of those that 
force this steamer to Cleveland and back. 

Note the steamer's great length. Estimate the length and 
height of a dock again. What advantage in high docks '.s 
now evident? See the dark wall of another dock far at your 
left, while the heights of Duluth rise in the distance. 

We pass from the head to the outlet of Lake Su- 
perior and take our stand at the "Soo" canal to see a 
steamer passing through one of the locks. 

Position 7IM, "Down-lockage" in canal {letting 
water through gate to equalize level), Sault Ste, 
Marie, Mich, 



CANAL-LOCK, SAULT STE. MARIE 341 

Here the St. Mary's rapids are behind us, while to 
our front, beyond the city of Sault Ste. Marie, the 
upper peninsula of Michigan stretches away to the 
prairies along the Mississippi river. 

From the appearance of the steamer what do you 
infer about the water level in the canal beyond those 
massive gates as compared with that in the canal at 
our left? The steamer lies in a basin or lock with 
closed gates at both ends : the gate behind the vessel 
parts the basin and the water of Lake Superior. See 
the jets of water spurting from between the two 
gates. What does the boiling water tell you is tak- 
ing place near the bottom of these gates? In the 
course of ten minutes how will the level of the water 
on the two sides of these gates compare? What 
may the steamer then do when the gates are swung 
back? Why is a canal with locks necessary here? 
What other ship canals in the world ? Which have 
locks? 

At another time return to the Soo and take several posi- 
tions to see the two locks in action, the passing shipping, and 
the surrounding country. 

Position flMa. Looking W. toward Lake Superior over 
locks and vessels 

Position 7 1Mb. " Up-lockage" for freighters (water at lowest 
level), W. over Poe Lock, Sault Ste. Marie 

Position 7lMc. Whaleback freighters of ore and grain pass- 
ing locks up the canal; water at highest level,— upper 
gate open), Sault Ste. Marie 

Position 7lMd. " Down-lockage n for freighters in Poe Lock 
{water at lowest level), Sault Ste. Marie 

Position 7lMe. North from Michigan side over American 
canals and rapids to Canadian canals, Sault Ste. Marie 

We follow the ore down the lakes on its way to 
furnaces near the coal fields. Our next standpoint is 
on board another steamer which has just unloaded at 
Cleveland. 



342 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 8IM, Unloading an ore-steamer at Cleve- 
land, O. — lowering a five-ton electric clam into 
the hold 

What marvelous ore-handling machinery ! To 
our left, steamers; to right, freight trains and ore 
piles; while machinery above us connects the two. 
Where is the scoop that takes up and transports the 
ore? How do you think its jaws act when it is let 
down to the ore in the steamer's hold? Why 
call it a "clam" ? Do you see the little room 
above, where the man stands who controls the 
scoop's action? Find a second room. Where is 
the scoop that is controlled from this one? 
There are supporting tracks for a third car between 
these two- : where has it moved with a scoop load of 
ore? 

Of what material are the great unloading machinery, towers, 
tracks, etc., constructed ? What advantage did the inventors 
and capitalists seek in devising and erecting such ingenious 
and costly machinery? What is the extent of ore movement 
they indicate ? 

We now stand where we can overlook a typical 
ore-dock at Conneaut. 

Position gIM. Piles of iron ore between docks of 
Ztake steamers (right) and railways to mills, Con- 
neaut, Ohio 

What adjective best describes the size and extent 
of these ore piles? Compare them with the ore 
heaped in the long train of laden cars ready to start 
for the furnaces inland, or with the capacity of the 
great steamer. How are the piles built up firmly? 
Why should the range at your right rise to separate 
peaks ? 

Notice the distant conveyors thoughtfully. Do 



TRANSPORTATION OF IRON ORE 343 

you see the broad gauge track spanning the gutter 
between the two car tracks? Follow it with your 
eye to the conveyor. How, then, was the ore un- 
loaded from vessels moored between the conveyor 
we are on and the one beyond? How can ore from 
these piles be quickly and cheaply transferred to 
trains of cars beside them? Why not always un- 
load steamers direct to trains, thus avoiding re- 
handling the ore? Notice the unloading machinery 
on the further side of the creek : is it all of one pat- 
tern? 

When time allows, take other positions along such docks 
and study the variety of unloading machinery and its action 
for further light on the questions raised above. 

Position gIMa. Mlectrie unloader lifting five tons of iron 
ore from vessel's hold to docks, Cleveland, Ohio 

Position gIMb. Unloading iron ore from Lake vessels (old 
method in foreground, new method in distance), Cleve- 
land, Ohio 

Position gIMc. Docks, switchyards, and one-ton buckets 
for lifting iron ore from ships to curs, Cleveland, Ohio 

Position gIMd. Hulett ore-unloader handling ten tons iron 
ore— Lake steamer at Cleveland, Ohio 

Summary. Write an account of the transporta- 
tion of ore down the lakes. You may either (a) 
describe the scenes viewed from the six typical 
standpoints you have taken, or (b) relate the story 
of a trip from Duluth to Cleveland on an ore carry- 
ing steamer, or (c) tell the story of a piece of ore 
on its way from mine to furnace. Illustrate your 
paper with simple maps, diagrams, sketches, and pic- 
tures cut from periodicals. 

Discuss in the class the methods of handling and 
transporting coal that you see in use in" and near 
your home as compared with the ways of shipping 
ore down the lakes. In which case is the total ton- 
nage movement greater? In which is the capital 



344 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

invested in structures and machinery for storing, 
shipping, and transhipment the greater? And in 
which case is the cost of handling a ton of ma- 
terial the greater? Compare the methods of hand- 
ling ores and coal in America with those usual in 
lands with less highly developed industries. (See 
Position 13R in Japan.) 

Iron and Steel 

Introduction. What is meant by the Stone 
Age in man's development? The Bronze Age? 
What age followed ? What metal is most important 
today ? 

Were iron and steel not known and used, could 
textile factories be equipped with machinery and 
engines? Or light, strong agricultural machines be 
supplied to raise food cheaply? Or strong, swift 
locomotives and steamships be built to carry the 
world's enormous commerce? How important is 
steel to industry today, then? 

What countries have rich iron deposits? Which 
have convenient coal measures also? What coun- 
tries, then, have the best foundation for industrial 
and commercial success? Which have developed 
their under-earth resources? 

Home Industries. What workers in iron are 
there near your school? Visit a blacksmith's shop. 
What does he make? How does he heat steel and 
iron? And why? How work the metal? Whence 
does he get the steel bars and rods he uses as ma- 
terials? 

Visit the nearest foundry. For what does it make 



IRON AND STEEL 315 

castings? How are the molds made? How is the 
iron or steel melted? Why does not the furnace 
itself melt? How is air supplied to make the fuel 
that is mixed with the iron burn fiercely? What is 
pig iron? Whence does the foundry get it? 

Visit a machine shop. What can the machines 
there do to steel bars and castings? Compare the 
machines with those in a local woodworking mill. 
Do the machinists need muscle or skill the more? 
Compare the machine shop with the blacksmith 
shop as regards the methods of work and the char- 
acter and finish of its products. 

Steel Works 

You are now prepared to visit one of the great 
steel works of the country. Where is Pittsburgh? 
Why is it the steel center of America? You are to 
take Position near there overlooking the great 
Homestead plant of the United States Steel Co. 

Position ioIM. Steel Works, Homestead, Pa.— fa- 
mous source of dirt and dollars 

Why is it the steel center of America? You are to 
City"? How many chimneys can you count? There 
are others still out of your sight. Can you count 
the number of cars, or even tracks, in just this part 
of the yard ? What chance would a small mill have 
to compete profitably with this vast plant? Would 
it be easy to secure the twenty or thirty million dol- 
lars necessary to build and equip a competing plant ? 
What are several reasons for the concentration of 
the steel industry in limited districts of a few coun- 
tries ? 



346 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Can you see the valley side, and the level sky line 
of the upland level? Where are the works located, 
then? What advantages for transportation does 
this give them? How many open cars of limestone 
can you see? It is used with the ore and coke in 
the blast furnace, in order to cause the earthy im- 
purities to melt and separate from the metal. Con- 
sider again the question that closed the preceding 
paragraph. 

You are next to stand on a car top beneath two 
towering furnaces. 

Position 11IM. Red-hot iron Sowing from blast 
furnace, ready for making into pig iron and steel, 
Pittsburgh 

What makes the scene so impressive and awful ? 
What hides the chimney top? Compare the struc- 
tures in size with the platform car or the man beside 
it. Of what materials are they built? What im- 
pression is given as to the cost of steel works? 
What adjectives express the character and effect of 
this striking scene? 

Notice the steeply inclined elevators on the fur- 
ther side of the two furnaces, up which the ore, coke, 
and limestone are hauled to the furnace tops. Be- 
tween the furnaces are eight tall stoves in whose 
flues the blasts of air, driven by the engine, are heated 
before entering the lower part of either furnace. 
The gases driven off in reducing, or changing, the 
ore to liquid iron and slag are conducted down from 
the furnace top in the great branched pipes you see 
and then they are burned in the stoves. Why heat the 
air blast? Why use escaping gases to do this? 



IRON AND STEEL 347 

Compare one of these gigantic furnaces in its pur- 
poses, parts and operations with the furnace at your 
local foundry, or with a blacksmith's hearth and fire. 
What is flowing from the hearth, or lower part, 
of the nearest furnace? How is the great ladle, or 
bowl of steel and firebrick, into which the molten 
metal flows mounted ? Why so ? The iron will now 
be carried to a Bessemer steel converter and changed 
into steel. 

Your next stand is in the rolling-mill, a building 

like that in the foreground of Position 10IM, where 

a steel beam is being made. 

Position 12IM. Steel Works, Pittsburgh, Pa.— beam 
of red-hot steel in rolling-mill, drawn out go feet 
long 

W T hat makes the long beam glow like the sunlit 
windows? What have you seen like it in a black- 
smith's shop ? See the powerful rolls through which 
it has come towards you. How many such sets of 
rolls can you count? Compare the action of their 
pressure, as they turn like a clothes wringer, to the 
effect of the blacksmith's hammer upon the hot iron 
placed on the anvil. Does the blacksmith do all of 
his forging to shape at one blow? Then why use 
many rolls of slightly varying forms and spaces? 
There are other rolls still on the rack at our left. 

How many men to be seen ? Notice the one stand- 
ing by the levers on the raised platform. When he 
pulls a lever that causes an engine to set in motion 
the rollers on which the beam rests, what must it do? 
If by another lever he moves the entire roll table, 
with the beam upon it, to the left or right, where 
would the beam be rolled next? If beams were 



348 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

forged at the expense of employing the hammers of 
many men could they be used for bridges and build- 
ings freely ? By making steam, electricity, and pow- 
erful machinery do the work rapidly and uniformly, 
what effect upon the cost of railways and iron struc- 
tures ? 

Supplementary Suggestions. Use Poole's In- 
dex and find illustrated articles on the manufacture 
of iron and steel in current magazines. Gather a set 
of pictures illustrating the successive steps in such 
manufacture, and mount them for reference by other 
classes. 

What products from rolling-mills are to be found 
in the manufactories and structures of yo.ur vicinity ? 
What benefits do you get from the invention of the 
costly machinery that makes steel products so 
cheaply ? 

To what countries does the United States export 
products of its steel works? What other countries 
have many well equipped steel mills ? 



LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 

Coal and Coke 

What is coal used for in your vicinity? Whence 
does it come? It would be interesting to make a 
school collection of different kinds of coal, of fos- 
sils in coal, and of coke. How is coal gas made 
near your home? What have you already learned 
about coal at school? 



COAL AND COKE 349 

i 

You are now to descend into some deep mines of 
bituminous coal and visit ovens where coke is made. 

Position iIMR. Mining coal three miles under 
ground, Pennsylvania 

Position 2IMR. Dinner two and one-half miles 
underground — miners with safety lamps in a soft 
coal mine — Illinois 

Position 3IMR. Down in a soft coal mine (two and 
one-half miles)— the men that dig and the motor 
that hauls off products — Illinois 

Position 4IMR, Coke ovens near Altoona, Pa* — till- 
ing with soft coal from overhead — opening and 
sealing doors 

Prepare to tell your classmates about scenes in 
the drifts of a coal mine, describing the miners and 
their work in mining the coal and moving it to 
the shafts. You will find Homer Greene's Coal 
and the Coal Mines just the book to settle all the 
questions a live boy or girl wishes answered after 
such a visit. A good summary is given in Mc- 
Murry's Type Studies from United States Geog- 
raphy. An interesting, short account is in Cham- 
berlain's geographical reader entitled, How We Are 
Sheltered. 

Make a study of the coke ovens. How are they 
built? Where are they charged with coal? Is 
much or little air admitted to the burning coal? 
Why? Why is one man using a hose? Where is 
coke withdrawn? The manufacture of coke is de- 
scribed in Carpenter's geographical reader on 
North America. 

Copper Mines 

For what is copper used? What qualities fit it 
for these uses? Get specimens of copper ores and 



350 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

native copper for the school cabinet. Where are 
there rich copper mines in the United States ? You 
are now to visit two in Arizona, taking three stand- 
points at the mines themselves and three near the 
concentrators that reduce the ore to a purer state 
before sending it by rail to a smelter. 

Position 5IMR. Loading surface ore, Metcalf Cop- 
per mines, Arizona 

Position 61MR. Drilling copper ore one mile under- 
ground, the Wilson Mine, Metcalf, Arizona 

Position jIMR. In the mountain' s heart — running 
out copper ore, Wilson Mine, Metcalf, Arizona 

Position 8IMR. Inclines to the copper mines, Met- 
calf, Arizona 

Position qlMR. The Detroit Copper Company's con- 
centrator in the copper hills of Morenci, Arizona 

Position 10IMR. Climbing the last loop on the 
mountain railway to Morenci Copper Mines, Ari- 
zona 

Prepare to write a description of an Arizona cop- 
per mine and its surroundings, or to tell the class 
about it. Notice the miners, their tools and work, 
the drifts and timbers, the cars for moving ore, the 
buildings for the work and those for workmen, the 
hills and their vegetation, the mountain railways 
and the burros for transport. Read the chapter on 
Copper Mining in Fairbanks' geographical reader on 
The Western United States. (D. C. Heath & Co.) 

Gold Mining 

What relation has gold mining had to exploration 
and settlement in the West, and other regions? 
What places in the world produce most gold? You 
are now to observe the life of prospectors and placer 
miners in the wilds of the West and the Klondike 



GOLD MIXING 351 

from three standpoints, then to contrast their tools 
and methods with the costly reduction works of 
South African gold mines. 

Position 11IMR. Prospecting for gold, Indian Gar- 
dens, Grand Canyon of Arizona 

Position 1 2 IMR, The gold mine where $1,500 was 
taken out each day-, Hunter Creek, Klondike 

Position 13IMR. Gold miners at work in the Klon- 
dike country- 
Position 14IMR. In the great ore crushing mill of 
the Robinson mine — the richest gold mine of 
Johannesburg, South Africa 

Position 15IMR. Precipitating vats — extracting gold 
from the ore, Robinson Mine, Johannesburg, 
South Africa 

Describe a prospector's outfit when at work. 
What leads men to risk their lives in exploring the 
ledges of western mountains ? Give a description of 
a Klondike placer mine, with its situation and sur- 
roundings. Why is gold found in stream gravels? 
How is it separated ? Is much capital necessary for 
such gold mining? What adjectives fittingly de- 
scribe the mill and machinery of the mine at 
Johannesburg? Why is a costly plant necessary 
when gold is mined by shafts and drifts into gold 
bearing rocks? 

Which kind of mine would employ highly skilled 
mining and mechanical engineers? Which would 
most attract a rush of ambitious, adventurous men? 
Which would require a company of capitalists and 
the employment of many hired laborers? Which 
kind of mine would be first developed in a region? 
Read about prospecting and gold mining in Fair- 
banks' The Western United States, and about the 
development of gold mining in McMurry's Type 



352 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Studies from United States Geography. Several 
chapters of Carpenter's school reader about North 
America will help you. 

Plate Glass Manufacture 

Glass manufacture in America centers near Pitts- 
burgh, for there natural gas is available for the 
furnaces where sand and chemicals are fused to form 
glass. You are now to take five standpoints in a 
plate glass factory of this district, to study the more 
important steps in manufacture. 

Position 16IMR. Plate Glass Works, Tarantum, 
Pa. — modeling clay pots for molten glass — moving 
pots to drying room 

Position 17IMR. Glass-making— drawing pot of 
red-hot liquid from the glowing furnace {men 
balancing its weight) 

Position x8IMR. Glass manufacture, — casting and 
rolling sheets of plate glass, 12 1-2 x 21 feet 

Position iglMR. Glass-making, revolving iron 
disks grinding surface of plate glass 

Position 20IMR. Workmen finishing plate- glass 
windows in polishing room 

In what ways does glass manufacture resemble 
steel manufacture? How do they differ? Wherein 
is manufacture of plate glass typical of American 
industries ? 

Write a paper on your observations : either an ac- 
count of a trip through a factory, or the story of a 
clay pot or crucible for a glass furnace, or the story 
of its life told you by a plate glass window. 

Send to the Pittsburgh Glass Co., Pittsburgh, Pa., 
for a copy of their little illustrated booklet describ- 
ing the manufacture of plate glass. 



LUMBERING 

LIBRARY REFERENCE GROUPS 
Big Trees of California 

While several groves of sequoiae are preserved in 
parks, others are cut for lumber. You may study 
the work from these standpoints in a valley of the 
Sierra Nevada : 

Position iIl,R. Cutting down the big trees— group 
of axemen sitting in the undercut— Converse Ba- 
sin, California 

Position 2lZ,R. Ending a life of centuries — a giant 
tree falling 

Position sII^R. The stump where a forest giant 
stood — and the saw which felled it 

Position 4ILR. Big tree logging — blast rending a 
section of & great tree 

Position 5lZ,R. Big tree logging — hauling enor- 
mous sections of the great log on skids to the mill 

Position 6II,R. Sawmill in the Big Tree district 
and stumps of some of the giants 

What three tools are used successively in felling 
the giant trees of the Pacific coast ? How large are 
the sequoiae? How are smaller trees felled near 
home? What two steps in dividing the great 
trunks into sections that can be got to the mill? 
How transport them thither? Picture a sawmill in 
its clearing. 

What value has lumber to the Pacific coast? 
Would you advise cutting all the sequoiae and other 
forest trees? See also the reference group on the 
sequoiae, p. 39. 



354 geography through the stereoscope 

From Forest to Lumber Yard 

Where is the lumber yard nearest your school? 
What kinds of lumber there? For what uses? 
From what sources ? You now take six standpoints 
presenting lumber on its way to and from the mill. 

Position 7IX/R. Flat car train loaded with sugar 
pine logs— starting for the mills — McCloud river, 
California 

Position 8II,R. Poling logs in McCloud River 
Lumber Co.'s mill pond— looking toward magnifi- 
cent Mt. Shasta, California 

Position gllyR. The picturesque Nashwaak river, 
Marysville, New Brunswick 

Position ioII/R. Sorting logs for mills (distant) that 
produce 55,000 feet of lumber daily, Menominee 
river, Wis. 

Position iiIl/R. Scouring logs and hauling them 
up the slip into a saw-mill, Minneapolis, Minn. 

Position 12II/R. Enormous piles of lumber season- 
ing previous to shipment — yard at Minneapolis, 
Minn. 

How are logs gotten from the forests to the mills ? 
What advantage has each of the two methods over 
the other? Consider relative cost, convenience, re- 
liability at all seasons, dangers. Why combine the 
two often? How are the logs handled in rivers? 
What do the words "boom" and "pike-pole" mean 
to the "river drivers" of logs? Picture vividly to 
the class the process of raising the logs from the river 
to the saws in a Minneapolis mill. How wash the 
logs? Why? How are boards piled in a lumber 
yard ? Why not more closely ? What impression do 
you gain as to the importance of Minneapolis as a 
lumber center? What conditions have favored its 
development? Why are the mills above the city? 
Read about lumbering and the growth of Minne- 



TAR AND TURPENTINE 355 

apolis in McMurry's Type Studies from United 
States Geography. An excellent chapter on the in- 
dustry is given in Chamberlain's How We Are Shel- 
tered (Macmillan). 

Tar and Turpentine 

Find the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains on a re- 
lief map. You are to visit the pine forests of this 
sandy belt, in North Carolina. 

Position 13ILR. In the great pine forests of the 
South— gathering crude turpentine— North Caro- 
lina 

Position i4lI,R. Distilling turpentine from the 
crude resin — in ,the pine forests of North Caro- 
lina 

Position i5lI,R. "Sweating out" tar from pine 
wood in th e turf covered tar kiln 

Position 16ILR. Free and happy in his crude pros- 
perity—life in the Sand Belt of North Carolina 

Position iflltR. Typical negro home— log cabin 
with stick chimney— in the Turpentine Region 

Position i8IttR. The greatest resin market in the 
world — loading ocean vessels— Savannah, Geor- 
gia 

Tell your classmates how the open forests of long 
leaf pine look. Have you ever seen pitch oozing from 
a pine, or sap from a maple ? How is pine resin col- 
lected? (Position 33IMR.) Notice how the bark is 
cut away — and the resin either dipped up below, or 
scraped down wherever it has dried above — then bar- 
reled and carted off. What is a still? From your 
second standpoint notice the closed vessel (retort) 
over the bricked fireplace, the pipe extending to the 
unseen coil of pipe within the tank of cool water, 
and the bucket for catching the trickling drops of 
turpentine as the vapor condenses. Recall what 



356 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

you have learned about the distillation of alcohol, 
and tell how turpentine is separated from resin. 
By what means is tar separated from pine wood? 
How is it freed from settlings and dirt? Picture 
the life, home, and carriage of a typical negro 
family of the region. How are the naval stores of 
the South handled in commerce? Read about the 
life of "Georgia Crackers" in the Youths' Com- 
panion book Our Country East. (Perry, Mason & 
Co.) Carpenter's North America describes a tur- 
pentine farm. 

QUARRYING 

A Test 

You are now to visit one of the Rockport quar- 
ries alone. 

Position iIQR. Blasting granite from a great bed 
of primeval rock at Cape Ann, Mass, 

You have studied a number of industries from 
standpoints in the field and. in factories. This ex- 
cursion alone is to test your ability to see the signifi- 
cant facts and to understand their relations. Write 
or tell the story of this quarry and the lessons as 
to industries you learn there. Add some questions 
as to important matters that you cannot settle by 
your own observations, or supplementary reading 
that you find yourself in such books at the library 
as Chamberlain's How We Are Sheltered. 



VOLCANOES 

Introduction. Distinguish between volcanoes 
— the vents through which the material is ejected 
— and volcanic mountains — the conical accumula- 
tions of lava and pulverized rock. Locate upon the 
globe the line of active volcanoes from the south- 
ern part of the Andes through the whole extent of 
that system into the Cordilleras of Mexico, the 
Rocky Mountains, along the Aleutian Islands, Kam- 
chatka, the Kurile Islands, Japan, the Philippines, 
New Guinea and New Zealand. Name and locate 
the principal volcanoes of the Mediterranean area. 
Note the relation between the situation of the active 
volcanoes and the sea. Where is Fujiyama? Mt. 
Hood? 

Volcanic Cones 

Vesuvius is, perhaps, the best known volcano in 
the world. What happened in 1906 to turn the 
attention of the whole world towards it? You will 
now take your stand in Naples and look south- 
east across the beautiful bay. 

Position iV. Birds eye view of Naples and Vesuvius. 
Italy 

(a) Name the principal features of this scene 
and give a brief description of each in its relation 
to the others. On which hand is Italy? The 
Mediterranean? What helps to distinguish Ve- 
suvius at once as a volcano? 

How many peaks do you see? The one at the left is 
Monte Somma; it is the remnant of an earlier cone destroyed 
in part by an explosion like that which took place in 1906. 



358 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Between the peaks is a deep semi-circular valley the old 
crater. 

(b) Draw a simple outline sketch of the moun- 
tain. What portion of the slopes of Vesuvius seems 
to be well populated? How does that part com- 
pare in steepness and in evenness of surface with 
the slopes upon which no houses are built ? Why do 
people risk their lives and property so near an active 
volcano ? What conditions contribute towards mak- 
ing the base of Vesuvius an exceptionally fertile 
spot? 

Your next Position is to be in Japan. 

Position sV. Snow-capped Fuji, the superb, mir- 
rored in the still waters of Lake Shoji— looking 
southeast— Japan 

Why do the Japanese and others admire this 
mountain? What evidence do their paintings and 
china present of their love for it? Describe the 
features and contrasts that appeal to you. What 
reason is there for supposing that Fujiyama is of 
volcanic origin ? Does it appear to be active or not ? 
What evidence do you see in the upper part of the 
action of running water? What effect will this 
have in time upon the form and altitude of the 
mountain ? 

Compare Fujiyama and Popocatepetl (p. 46) in form and 
conditions. 

In the United States Mt. Hood is an important 
example of an extinct volcano. You will now stand 
upon the shores of Lost Lake in Oregon and look 
towards it. 



VOLCANIC CONES 359 

Position 3V. Mt. Hood, one of America's famous 
mountains, from Z,ost I^ake, Oregon 

Describe the outline and general appearance of 
Mt. Hood. In what respect does it suggest vol- 
canic origin? Does it seem like a mountain that 
could easily be climbed? Give reasons. What ad- 
jectives describe the character of its surface? What 
forces have been at work bringing about this con^ 
dition? 

Summary. Name the different Positions which 
you have taken for the study of volcanic mountains. 
Compare each of the mountains in general form, 
symmetry and evenness of slopes. Describe the dif- 
ference between volcanic cones now in process of 
construction and those long extinct. Discuss briefly 
the birth, growth and final decay of a volcanic cone. 

Volcanic Phenomena and Their Conse- 
quences 

Introduction. Locate Martinique, West In- 
dies, and discuss briefly the destruction caused 
by. the eruption of Mt. Pelee. Make comparisons 
with the outbreak of Vesuvius in 1906 and relate 
briefly the story of Pompeii and Herculaneum. 
Where is Vesuvius in relation to Pompeii and 
Naples? Locate Hawaii. 

You will now take your stand upon the deck of a 
steamer off the coast of Martinique. 

Position 4V. A terrible volcanic explosion— Mont 
Pelee in eruption, 1Q02 

What is the most impressive feature of this 

scene? Describe the general appearance of the 



360 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

cloud and its relation to the mountain top. Have 
you ever watched the outpourings from a great 
chimney or from a locomotive smoke stack? Re- 
calling this experience what do you imagine is the 
movement of this enormous mass? This is one of 
the most remarkable and impressive exhibitions of 
nature. 

Your next Position is to be on the brink of a 
crater of one of the Japanese volcanoes. 

Position 5V. Gazing through sulphurous vapors, 
into the crater's frightful depth, Aso-San, Japan 

Why do these people approach the edge so 
cautiously? Notice the sheer precipice opposite: on 
this side the wall descends just as abruptly. What 
rises from below and hides the lower portion of the 
crater from sight? How does it make you feel to 
look into this bottomless pit? Why do you in- 
stinctively draw back? 

You will next stand and watch at close range the 
stones and lava thrown from within a crater. 

Position 6V. Stones and lava thrown upward — 
eruption of Mokuaweoweo Volcano, Hawaii 

Observe carefully the kind of rock upon which we 
are standing. What makes you think at one time it 
was in a liquid condition? Describe what you see 
rising directly in front of you and what is happen- 
ing just beyond. How has this wall in front been 
formed ? 

Examine the specimens of lava upon the teacher's table 
or in the school cabinet and compare it in general appear- 
ance with the rock upon which you are standing. 



VOLCANIC PHENOMENA 361 

From the next standpoint you are to observe the 
destruction caused by Mt. Pelee in Martinique. 

Position 7V. From. Orange Hill {northeast) ovet 
dead St. Pierre, to Mont Pelee, Martinique 

What is the condition of all the buildings in St. 
Pierre? What evidence do you see of former 
streets? Describe the appearance of the trees im- 
mediately below. Find the open space near the cen- 
ter of the town just in line with the boy's head : that 
is all that remains of a once beautiful park. What 
has become of the foliage and what makes the 
ground look gray instead of green? What word 
best describes this scene? In which direction is Mt. 
Pelee? 

You will now stand among the ruins of St. 
Pierre. 

Position 8V. Scientists and naval onicers exploring 
the ruins of St. Pierre, Martinique 

On all sides what evidence do you see of the vol- 
canic eruption? Where you now stand was the 
site of a building: what is left to show this fact? 
Observe the deposit of volcanic ash upon which the 
nearer people are standing. Describe the condition 
of the trees close by and the appearance of those 
upon the hillside. 

The next Position is in the midst of one of the 
most historic examples of volcanic destruction. You 
are to stand in the Forum at Pompeii, Italy, and look 
towards Vesuvius. 

Position 9 V. The Forum of Pompeii and Vesuvius, 
Italy 



362 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

What now remains of the magnificent Forum? 

To appreciate the magnitude of these ruins com- 
pare the size of those two people approaching us 
from the distant pavement with their surroundings. 
How does this view of Vesuvius differ from that 
which you had looking from Naples? Recall the 
position of Vesuvius in relation to Naples and Pom- 
peii. Read the third paragraph upon the back of 
the mount and as much of the others as you have 
time for. 

Summary. Describe the volcanic explosion 
which you witnessed off Martinique. Tell where 
you were standing, about how far you were from 
the mountain, how the cloud of condensed steam 
looked and what your feeling was at the time. 

Describe the appearance of St. Pierre as you saw 
it from the hill and what you saw in the middle of 
the town. Recall the ruins of Pompeii. 

Tell about your visit to the crater of a volcano in 
Japan and about the eruption of lava and stones 
which you saw in Hawaii. Describe the appearance 
of the lava flow upon which you stood in Hawaii. 

Compare the violence of the outbreak in vol- 
canoes like Vesuvius and Pelee with the eruption in 
those of the Hawaiian type. Enumerate some of 
the products of volcanic action. 



INDEX 

NOTE. — This list refers not only to the textbook matter 
but also, in large measure, to the contents of the accom- 
panying stereographs. For example, under Animals, the 
first reference to Camels, p. 221, leads to textbook matter; 
the other references are to what may be observed in certain 
stereographed scenes whose titles are printed on pp. 252 and 
265. The extent of the list is significant of the wealth of 
material here placed at the pupil's service. 



Acropolis of Athens, 206. 
Adobe buildi gs, 48. 
Africa, 207-236. 

Cairo, 214. 

Central Africa, 224. 

Congo river, 230. 

desert life, 220. 

Egypt, 207. 

gold-mining, 351. 

irrigation, 216. 

Nile river, 222. 
Agincourt, battlefield of, 113. 
Agriculture,— see Food Industries, 

Haying, Irrigation and Plowing 
Alberta, Canada, 41. 
Altitudes, at high, 61. 
Alpi e life and scenery, 161-171. 
Amilfi, 176. 
Amsterdam, 136. 
Amusements: — 

boating in England, 92. 

bull-ring in Peru, — distant view, 
5c*65. 

children's games, Japan, 280. 

dinner-party, Japan, 274. 

feeding pets, 14R*193. 

fishing (children), 280. 

gardens, Japan, 276. 

hunting-party in Wyoming, 40. 

military drill, Japan, 280. 

music at home, Ecuador, 8a* 
68. 

picnics, Japan, 276, 31K*280. 

traveling to famous places, 2*23, 
16B*36, 5*168. 

watching a procession, India, 
16*249. 

watching a street showman, 
Japan, 280. 
Andean plateau, the, 55-73. 
Andes, the, 57, 58. 
Animals: — buffalo, 29. 

camels, 221, 8R*252, 1R*265. 

carabaos. 1*237, 238, 321. 

cows, 3*135. 

deer, 29. 

dog in harness, 134. 



Animals — donkeys in Peru, 78. 

elephants, 248-252. 

horses, 8*30, 39, 29R*40. 

llamas in Peru, 58, 59. 

sheep, 21, 303. 
Antwerp, 140. 
Architecture : — 

Byzantine, 14R*193. 

Chinese, 3R*265. 

Egyptian, 1*207, 2*209. 

Gothic, 4R-5R*93, 13R-20R* 
130, 13R, 22R-25R*159. 

Graeco-Roman, 5R*128. 

Greek, 5R*204, 12R, 13R*205, 
15R*206. 

Indian, 11*246. 

Japanese, 5*272, 6*273. 

Modern steel construction, 3*4, 
4*5. 

Renaissance, 8*178, 1R*189,8R* 
191. 

Roman, 9*180, 11*181. 

Russian, 4R,5R*202. 

Saracenic, 12*246. 

see also Homes, Streets and 
Towers. 
Arctic Ocean and lands, 3R*147, 21 

IFR*328. 
Arequipa, Peru, 65. 
Arizona, 21-27: — 

cattle-raising, 325. 

copper-mining, 350. 

gold-mining, 351. 

Grand Canyon, 23-26. 

mountains of, 34. 

Painted Desert, 34. 

railway construction, 4R*34, 
350. 

sheep raising, 302. 
Art, famous works of. 

Last Judgment, Rome, 190. 

Lions of Mykence, 2R*204. 

Madonna of the Chair, Flor- 
ence, 192. 

Madonna of the Diadem, Paris, 
129. 

Knife-Grinder, Florence, 192. 



* See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named. 



364 



INDEX 



Art, famous works of: 

Venus de Medici, Florence, 192. 

Venus of Melos, Paris, 129. 

Winged Victory, Paris, 129. 

The Wrestlers, Florence, 192. 
Asia, 237-288. 

Assouan, great dam at, 218. 
Athens, 205. 
Austrian Tyrol, 1*161. 

"Backward customs," Egypt, 217. 

Korea, 283, 284. 

Palestine, 312, 316. 

Russia, 314. 

Spain, 104-107. 

see also Primitive modes of life. 
Baffin's Bay, whaling in, 328. 
Bamboo, 260. 
Bananas, 226, 332. 
Barbaric people, 220, 225. 
Battlefield of Agincourt, 113. 

Crgcy, 113. 

Stirling, i)R*94. 
Bedouins, 220. 
Beets for sugar, 160, 330. 
Belgian cities, 140. 

flax-curing, 307, 308. 
Benares, India, 244, 245. 
Bergen, 144. 
Berlin, 156, 158. 
"Big trees," California, 39, 353. 
Blacksmith of central Africa, 225. 
Bombay, 252. 
Bridge, Brooklyn, 3, 7. 

floating, 199. 

Forth, 96. 

in Arizona, 34, 

in Andes, 58. 

London, 90. 

Vecchio, Florence, 191. 
British Columbia, 31R,32R*41. 
British Empire, Rulers of, 93. 
Bruges, belfry of, 140. 
Brussels, 140. 
Burgos, 101. 

Cacao-culture, 74. 

Cairo, Egypt, 214. 

Calcutta, 252. 

California, big trees, 39, 353. 

Coast range, 25IFR*329. 

irrigation, 329. 

lumbering, 353, 354. 

Mt. Shasta, 354. 

Oranges, 329. 

Redlands, 329. 

Riverside, 329. 

San Bernardino Valley, 329. 

Sierra Nevada mountains, 36. 

Yosemite, 36. 
Camels, in Africa, 1*207, 221. 

China,lR*265. 
Canada, harvesting in, 312, 313, 
314. 

loading grain, 315. 

logs in river, 354. 

mining gold, 351. 

Niagara, 9-17. 

Quebec, 43. 



Canada— Rocky mountains and Sel« 
kirks, 41. 

St. Lawrence river, 43. 

Sault Ste. Marie, 7IMe*341. 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier, 94. 

Welland Canal, 17. 
Canals, in Canada, 17. 

China, 262. 

Germany, 158. 

Greece, 159. 

Holland, 136. 

Japan, 278. 

Venice, 186. 

at Sault Ste. Marie, 340, 341. 

Suez, 159. 
Canton, 264, 265. 
Canyon, Grand, Arizona, 23. 

of the Yellowstone, 31. 
Caravan of camels, 1R*265. 
Carriers, see Transportation. 
Cashmere, Vale of, 243. 
Castle, at Edinburgh, 95. 

on the Rhine, 150, 152, 160. 

Windsor, 92. 
Cathedrals in Belgium, 140. 

France, 128, 130. 

Germany, 153, 158, 159. 

Italy, 8R*191, 193. 

Russia, 4R,5R*202. 

Spain, 101. 
Cattle-raising, 86, 325. 
Central Africa, 224. 
Central America — see Costa Rica. 
Cerro de Pasco, Peru, 66, 72. 
Ceylon, bamboo, 261. 

coffee, 331. 

elephants, 248—252. 

goldsmiths, 240. 

rice, 237, 238. 

tea, 318. 
Chamberlain, Hon. Joseph, 93. 
Child life in Japan, 9*276, 280. 
Chimborazo, 60. 
China, 254-267. 

bamboo, 260.. 

camel-caravan, 1R*265. 

cities, 265. 

Great Wall, 257, 266. 

people and homes, 254. 

surface features, 257. 

tea trade, 319. 

transportation by water, 262. 
Chocolate, see Cacao. 
Chop-sticks, use of, 7*274. 
Cliffs, 14R*36, 7a*122. 
Climate, see Relief and its effects. 
Clothing, see People. 
Clothing, industries pertaining to: — 

cotton, in field, 57, 293. 
in gin-mill, 306. 
baling and shipping, 306. 

flax, curing, 307, 308. 

wool growing, 21, 72, 86, 101, 
204, 302. 
shearing, 304. 
washing, 72. 

carding, 298. 

hatcheling, 308. 

spinning, 295, 296. 



* See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named. 



INDEX 



365 



Clothing, industries pertaining to : — 

weaving, 52, 72, 239, 297, 299,300. 

whalebone, 329. 

selling dress stuff, Ecuador, 78. 
Japan, 277. 
Russia, 196. 

see also Leather. 
Coal mining, 348, 349. 
Coaling a steamer by hand, 278. 
Coast lines and shores: — 

France, 117-122. 

Greece, 3R*204. 

Italy, 175-177, 13*183. 

Spain, 99. 

Norway, 4*144, 5*145. 

Switzerland (lake shores), 170. 
Cocoa industry, the, 74. 
Coffee, 331. 
Coke, 348, 349. 
Colorado River, Grand Canyon of 

the, 23. 
Colorado (State), Pike's Peak, 25R* 
40. 

Rocky Mt. scenery, 40. 
Commerce, see Harbors, Markets, 

and Transportation. 
Congo Free State, 224. 
Congo river, 230. 
Conveyances, see Hansoms, Omni' 

buses and Transportation. 
Copper mining, 72, 335, 350. 
Cork industry, 109. 
Corn, 326. 

Costa Rica, 75, 77, 332. 
Costumes, see People. 
Cotopaxi, 61. 
Cotton, baling, 306. 

ginning, 306. 

manufacturing, 72, 295-302. 

picking, 57, 293. 

spinning, Naples, 295. 

transporting, 306. 
Craters of geysers, 35. 

volcanoes, 61, 271, 360. 
Crdcy, battlefield of, 113. 
Cuba sugar, 330. 

tobacco, 333. 
Cuzco, Peru, 64, 65, 67. 

Dam at Assouan, Egypt, 218. 
Defence, see Fortifications, Soldiers, 

Walls and Warships. 
Delhi, India, 246, 249, 252. 
Desert, Libvan, 207, 209, 220. 

"Painted," 34. 
Dinner in Japan, 274. 
Docks, see Harbors. 
Dog at work, 134. 
Drainage, see Relief and its effects. 
Dress, see People. 
Dyanmos, 5000 horse-power, 19. 

Ecuador, 60, 61, 68, 69, 70, 74-79. 
Edinburgh, 95. 
Edward VII, 93. 
Egypt, 207-223. 

Cairo, 208, 214. 

camels, 1*207. 

desert, 207, 209, 220. 



Egypt:— irrigation, 216. 

Nile river, 210, 217-219, 222. 

people, 207-211, 216, 220, 223. 

pyramids, 207, 211. 

Sphinx, 207, 211. 

Suez Canal, 159. 
Elephants, at work, 248, 249. 

in procession, 249. 

wild, 250. 
England, 88-94. 

Government of, 93. 
Equatorial Africa, see Congo Free 
State. 

America, see Ecuador. 
Erosion, at Garden of the Gods, 
25R*40. 

Grand Canyon, 23. 

Niagara, 14, 15. 

Yellowstone, Canyon, 31. 

Yosemite Valley, 38. 
Eruptions of geysers, 35. 

of volcanoes, 359, 360. 
Etretat (sea-coast), 122. 
Europe, 80-206. 

Austria (Tyrol),l*161. 

Belgium, 139, 140, 307. 

England, 88. 

France, 111, 164. 

Germany, 150. 

Greece, 204. 

Holland, 133. 

Ireland, 80, 296, 299, 308. 

Italy, 172, 304. 

Monaco, 118. 

Norway, 141, 144, 169. 

Portugal, 103, 108. 

Russia, 194, 314. 

Scotland, 94. 

Spain, 98, 104, 312. 

Sweden, 142, 143, 147. 

Switzerland, 166, 167. 

Farming, see Fertilizing, Food In- 
dustries, Haying, Irrigation and 

Plowing. 
Fertilizing, 106, 3*115. 
"Field of the Cloth of Gold," 113. 
Fiords, in Norway, 144, 145. 

of the river Forth, 17R*96. 
Fishing in Africa, 226, 235. 

France, 119, 121, 122. 

Holland, 133. 

Japan, 280. 

U. S. A., 327. 
Flax, 296, 307. 
Florence, Italy, 191. 
Foods, and industries pertaining to: 

artichokes, 102. 

bananas, 226, 332. 

beets (for sugar), 160, 330. 

chocolate and cocoa, 74. 

coffee, 331. 

eggs, 86. 

fish, 119, 121, 122, 133, 226, 
235, 327. 

grain, growing, 326. 
grinding, 51, 70, 283. 
harvesting, 106, 312, 314. 
threshing, 111, 268, 313, 314. 



! See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named 



366 



INDEX 



Foods, and industries pertaining to : 
grain, transporting, 18, 314, 315. 

winnowing, 282. 
See also rice. 
meat, beef, 86, 325. 

mutton, 21, 72, 86, 101, 204, 
302. 

pork, 86, 326. 
milk, 80, 134, 135, 139, 3*195. 
oranges, 329. 
oysters, 119. 
potatoes, 65, 86. 226. 
pulque, 52. 

rice, 237, 238, 271, 320, 323. 
salt, 120, 200. 
snow (used like ice), 61. 
sugar, extracting, 330. 

grinding, 72, 330. 

harvesting, 57, 72, 330. 

planting, 56. 

raising beets for, 160. 

transporting, 330. 
tea, 270, 317, 318. 
tobacco, 333. 
turnip-seed, 283. 
water-supply, Egypt, 1R*220, 
3R*222. 

Mexico, 50. 
wine, 115, 27R*160. 
see also Markets, Pottery and 

Dinner in Japan. 
Fording a stream, 29R*40. 
Forth Bridge, 96. 

valley, 94. 
Fortifications, Almeria, 99. 
Cairo, 215. 
Canton, 265. 
Cuzco, 64. 
Edinburgh, 95. 
Granada, 100. 
London, 3c*90. 
Moscow, 202. 
Mukden, 265. 
Pekin, 1R*265. 
Quebec, 43. 

Rhine Castles, 150, 152, 160. 
Rome, 182. 
See also China, Great Wall of, 

and Walled Cities. 
France, 111-131. 
Agincourt, 113. 
Brittany, 111. 
cathedrals, 130. 
coast districts, 117. 
Crgcy, 113. 

Field of the Cloth of Gold, 113. 
fishing, 121. 
Mentone, 117. 
Nice, 118. 
oysters, 119. 
Paris, 123, 128. 
Pyrenees, 114. 
relief and its effects, 111. 
St. Denis, 130. 
salt-fields, 120. 
Villefranche, 118. 
vineyards, 115. 
Fruit growing, see Bananas and 

Oranges. 



Fuel, see Coal, Coke, Lumber and 

Peat. 
Furniture and industries pertain- 
ing to: — 

Germany, palace interior, 156. 

India, wood carving, 240. 
prayer-rugs, 13*247. 

Italy, palace interior, 6R*190. 

Japan — bedroom, 275. 
dining-room, 274. 
drawing-room, 273. 
verandah, 10*276. 

Mexico, making matting, 52. 

South America, drawing-rooms, 
8a, 8b*68. 

Spain, palace interior, 108. 

see also Ivory, Leather, Lum- 
bering, Textiles and Tur- 
pentine. 
Fujiyama, 270, 358. 

"Garden of the Gods," 40. 
Garden, Japanese, 276. 
Genoa, Italy, 174. 
Georgia, cotton-field, 293. 

levee at Savannah, 355. 
Germany, 150-160. 

Berlin, 156, 158. 

cathedrals, 159. 

Cologne, 153, 155, 159. 

farming, 160. 

Heidelberg, 151, 154. 

industries, 160. 

Kiel, 158. 

Lubeck, 158. 

Magdeburg, 158. 

Rhine valley, 150-155, 158. 

ship-building, 160. 

Stettin, 158, 160. 

transportation, 158. 

vineyards, 27R*160. 

windmills, 160. 
Geysers, Yellowstone Park, 35. 
Glaciers, Canada, 41. 

France, 114, 164. 

Norway, 169. 

Switzerland, 166, 167. 

Tyrol, 161. 
Glass manufacture, 352. 
Gold mining, 350. 
Goldsmiths at work, 240. 
Gondolas, 186, 187. 
Gorges: Grand Canyon, 23. 

Niagara, 13. 

Rimac river, Peru, 57, 58. 

Royal (Colo.), 40. 

Yellowstone, 31. 
Government buildings, in Berlin 
156, 157. 

Bombay, 252. 

Christiania, 147. 

London, 90, 93. 

Madras, 252. 

Madrid, 108. 

Moscow, 202. 

New York, 5. 

Paris, 128. 

Quebec, 5R*43. 

Quito, 66, 68. 



* See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named. 



INDEX 



367 



Government buildings, in Rome, 
7*178. 

Stockholm, 147. 

Windsor, Eng. 92. 
Governments, heads of, 

King Edward VII. and Queen 
Alexandra, 93. 

President Roosevelt, 23R*39. 

see also People, famous. 
Grains, see Foods. 
Grain elevators, 18, 315. 
Granada, Spain, 100. 
Granite, 356. 

Grazing, see Food Industries. 
Great Britain, 88. 
Great Lakes, U. S. A., 338-344. 
Greece, 204-206. 

Argos, 204. 

Athens, 205. 

Corinthian Canal, 159. 

Megalopolis, 204. 

Mykenae, 204. 

Pentelikon, 205. 

Pharsala, 204. 

Piraeus, 205. 

Sparta, 204. 
Guanajuato, Mexico, 47. 
Guayaquil, Ecuador, 68, 69, 77, 78. 

Hansom cabs, 3f*91, 4a*92. 
Harbors, Docks and Water-fronts. 
Lake ports, U. S. A., 338, 340, 

342, 343. 
river ports, — Cairo, 222. 

Cologne, 153. 

Gothenburg, 147. 

Guayaquil, 77, 78. 

Kief, 199. 

Lisbon, 108. 

Lubeck, 158. 

Nijni Novgorod, 199. 
Seaports — Almeria, 99. 

Amsterdam, 136. 

Antwerp, 140. 

Bergen, 144. 

Canton, 256, 264. 

Chemulpo, 287. 

Christiania, 147. 

Etretat, 122. 

Hammerfest, 147. 

Le Croisic, 121. 

London, 88, 89. 

Manila, 289. 

Marken, 133. 

Mentone, 117. 

Nagasaki, 278. 

Naples, 175. 

New York, 1, 3. 

Nice, 118. 

Oban, 94. 

Piraeus, 205. 

Port Said, 159. 

Quebec, 43. 

Rotterdam, 136. 

Seville, 108. 

Stettin, 158. 

Stockholm, 147. 

Venice, 183. 

Villefranche, 118. 



Hawaii, banana growing, 332. 

volcanic eruption, 360. 
Haying, 141, 160, 194. 
Heidelberg, 151. 
Henley, England, 92. 
Himalaya mountains, 242. 
Historic places, — ■ 

Belgium, Bruges, 140. 

Brussels, 140. 

Canada, Quebec, 43. 

Egypt, Pyramids and Sphinx, 

207, 211. 
England, London, 88, 93. 

Windsor, 92. 
France, Agincourt, 113. 

Chartres, 130. 

Cre'cy, 113. 

Field of Cloth of Gold, 113. 

Paris, 123, 128. 

Rheims, 130. 

St. Denis, 130. 
Germany, Berlin, 156, 15S. 

Rhine country, 150-155. 
Greece, Argos, 204. 

Athens, 205. 

Mykenae, 204. 

Pharsala, 204. 

Sparta, 204. 
Holland, Amsterdam, 136. 
Rotterdam, 136. 
India Benares, 245. 

Calcutta, 252. 

Delhi, 246, 249. 

Madras, 252. 
Italy, Genoa, 174. 

Florence, 191. 

Naples, 175. 

Pompeii, 362. 

Rome, 178. 

Venice, 183. 
Peru, Cuzco, 64. 
Portugal, Lisbon, 108. 
Russia, Kief, 199. 

Moscow, 198, 202. 

St. Petersburg, 201. 
Scotland, Edinburgh, 95. 

Stirling, 94. 
Spain, Granada, 100. 

Madrid, 108. 

Seville, 108. 
Sweden, Stockholm, 147. 
Holland, Amsterdam, 136. 
dikes and polders, 132. 
Marken, 133. 
people, 133, 134, 139. 
Rotterdam, 136. 
Scheveningen, 139. 
Holy Cross, mount of the, 40. 
Homes, in the Alps, 164. 
China, 254-256. 
Congo Free State, 224, 225. 
Ecuador, 68, 69, 70. 
Egypt. 220. 
England (royal), 92. 
France (Savoy), 164. 
Germany (royal), 156, farm, 26R 

*160 
Holland, 139. 
Ireland, 80, 81. 



* See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named. 



368 



INDEX 



Homes, in Italy (papal), 172, 189. 

Japan, 272-276. 

Korea, 284. 

Mexico, 50. 

New York, 6. 

North Carolina (negro), 355. 

Philippine Islands, 289. 

Russia, 195. 

Scotland (royal), 95. 

Spain (royal), 108. 
House-boats in China, 256, 264. 
Hot Springs, see Geysers. 

Iberian Peninsula, 98-110. 
Illinois, cattle raising, 325. 

coal mining, 349. 

grain elevators, 18. 

hogs in pasture, 326. 

meat-packing, 325. 

plowing, 316. 

stock-yards, 325. 
India, 237-253. 

Ahmedabad, 247. 

Benares, 244, 245. 

Bombay, 252. 

Calcutta, 252. 

Cashmere, 239, 243. 

Darjeeling, 242. 

Delhi, 246, 249, 252. 

Durbar procession, 249. 

elephants, 248, 250. 

Himalaya mountains, 242. 

Jain temple, 246. 

Jeypore, 252. 

Jhelum river, 243. 

Lahore, 252. 

Madras, 252. 

religions, 245. 

weaving, 239. 

wood carving, 240. 
Indians of Mexico, 49, 50. 

Peru, 6*65, 6b*66. 
Industries, 291-356. 

see also Clothing, Food, Shelter 
and Transportation. 
Ireland, homes of farmers, 80. 

home of a landlord, 81. 

linen manufacture, 299, 300, 308. 

markets, 86. 

peat, 80, 83. 

spinning wheel, 296. 
Iron and Steel, 334-348. 

loading ore, 340. 

mining in open pits, 335, 336, 
337. 

mining underground, 335. 

molten iron, 346. 

ore-docks, 338, 339. 

passing Soo canal, 340, 341. 

rolling a beam of steel, 347. 

steel works at Homestead, 345. 

unloading ore, 342, 343. 
Irrigation, in California, 329. 

Egypt, 216. 

Peru, 56. 

Spain, 102, 105. 
Italy, 172-193. 

Amain, 176. 

Florence, 191. 



Italy— Genoa, 174. 

Marble at Carrara, 174. 

Mediterranean shore, 176. 

Naples, 175. 

Pompeii, 362. 

Rome, 177-182. 

surface features, 172-177. 

Vatican, the, 172, 189. 

Venice, 183, 193. 

Vesuvius, 175, 362. 
Ivory trade, Africa, 227. 

Jeypore, India, 252. 
Jamaica, banana trade, 332. 

tobacco growing, 333. 
Japan, 268-281. 

Aso San, 271, 360. 

child-life, 276, 280. 

Fujiyama, 270, 358. 

garden in, 276. 

homes, 270, 272. 

Kyoto, 277, 278, 279. 

Nagasaki, 278. 

Osaka, 277. 

pottery making, 279. 

rice culture, 271, 321, 322. 

surface features, 268. 

tea culture, 318. 

Tokyo, 276, 277, 278, 280. 

transportation, 278. 

weaving cotton, 297. 

Yokohama, 278, 280. 
Jinrikishas, 8R*277, 11R*278. 
Jungles, Africa, 5*230, 5a, 5c*231. 

Ceylon, 1R, 3R*250, 4R*251. 

Kansas, corn-growing, 326. 

prairie form, 326. 
Klondike, gold mining, 350. 
Korean cities, 286. 

people and ways, 282-290. 
Kyoto, Japan, 277, 278, 279. 

Lahore, India, 252. 
Lake Geneva, 170. 

Louise, Canada, 41. 

Lucerne, 170. 

Michigan (docks), 339. 

Superior (docks), 338, 340, 341. 
Land-forms, see Cliffs, Erosion, 

Lowlands reclaimed. Mountains, 

Plains, Plateaus, Prairies, Val- 
leys, Volcanoes, also heading: 

"Relief and its Effects." 
Land problem in Ireland, 81. 
Latitudes, high, see Arctic Ocean. 

low, see Equator. 
Leather-supply, source of, 86, 325. 
Lima, Peru, 65, 66. 
Linen, 296, 299, 300, 308. 
Lisbon, Portugal, 108. 
Literary associations, places with: 

Agincourt (Shakespeare), 113. 

Alhambra, the (Irving), 100. 

Amalfi, (Longfellow), 176. 

Athens, (Greek dramatists). 205. 

Belfry of Bruges (Longfellow), 
140. 

Benares, (Kipling), 244, 245. 



* See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named. 



INDEX 



369 



Literary associations, places with : 
Ben Venue, (Scott), 94. 
Bingen on the Rhine (Landon), 

160. 
Bridge of Sighs, (Byron), 15*187. 
Brig OTurk, (Scott), 94. 
Edinburgh, Castle, (Scott), 95. 
" monument, Princes St., 

(Scott), 95. 
Florence, (the Brownings), 191. 
Gloucester fisheries (Kipling), 328. 
Irish peasant homes, (Jane Bar- 
low), 80. 
. Lahore, (Kipling), 252. 
Lake Lucerne, (story of Tell), 

170. 
Mykenae citadel, (Homer and 

Aeschylus), 204. 
Notre Dame, (Victor Hugo), 128. 
Piazza della Signoria and Duomo, 

Florence, (George Eliot), 191. 
Stirling and the Trossachs, (Scott). 

94. 
Theatre at Megalopolis, (old 

Greek dramatists), 204. 
Tower of London (Shakespeare; 

Scott), 90. 
Vale of Cashmere, (Moore), 243. 
Venice, (Ruskin), 183-189, 193. 
Wallace Monument, (Burns), 94. 
Llamas in Peru, 58, 59. 
Logging, see Lumbering. 
London, 88-94. 

Bank of England, 90. 
Buckingham palace garden, 93. 
Colonial Premiers, 93. 
Coronation review, 93. 
Docks and shipping, 88, 89. 
Earl Roberts, 93. 
East London, 88. 
Hotels, 91. 
House of Lords, 93. 
Houses of Parliament, 93. 
King Edward VII., 93. 
London Bridge, 90. 
Lord Kitchener, 93. 
Ludgate Hill, 91. 
Oxford Street, 92. 
Queen Alexandra, 93. 
Regent Street, 92. 
Royal Exchange, 90. 
St. Paul's, 90, 4*91. 
Thames, river, 88, 89, 90. 
Tower of London, 90. 
Victoria Embankment, 90, 91. 
Waterloo Bridge, 90. 
Westminster Palace, 4R*93. 
See also People, famous. 
Louisiana, sugar levee, 330. 
Lowlands reclaimed, for city site, 

136, 183, 201. 
for farms, 134, 135. 
Lumbering, 269, 284, 353. 

Machinery, typical modern: — 
baling cotton, 306. 
carding cotton, 298. 
ginning cotton, 306. 
dynamos, 5,000 horse-power, 19. 



Machinery, typical modern: — 

harvesters, corn, 326. 
rice, 323. 
wheat, 316. 

hoisting logs, 353. 

loading iron ore, 339-340. 
wheat, 315. 

ore crushers (gold) 350. 

rolling steel, 347. 

shoveling iron ore, 335-337. 

sugar-making, 330. 

threshing rice, 324. 
wheat, 313, 314. 

unloading ore, 342, 343. 

warping, 299. 

weaving, 72, 300, 308. 
Madras, India, 252. 
Maguey and its uses, 52. 
Manila, P. I., 289. 
Manitoba farming, 312, 313, 314. 
Manchuria 5*257, 265, 5R-7B* 

267. 
Manufactures: — 

coke, 348, 349. 

flour and meal, 51, 70, 283. 

glass, 352. 

iron and steel, 345. 

lumber, 284, 353. 

pottery, 160, 226, 279. 

textiles, 52, 72, 295-308. 

turpentine, 374. 

See also Food, Clothing and 
Shelter. 
Marble, 174. 
Markets and shops: — 

Africa, 4d*228, llb*235. 

Ecuador, 14b*78. 

Germany, 17R*158. 

Greece, 4R*204. 

Holland, 4R*138. 

Ireland, 86. 

Japan, 6R*277, 11R*278. 

Korea, 5R*287. 

Mexico, 49. 

Peru, 65. 

Russia, 196. 

Scotland (underground), 14R*95 

United States, 5. 
Martinique, 359-360, 361. 
Massachusetts, fisheries, 328. 

quarries, 356. 
Mediterranean Sea, 1*99, 4*117, 

5 and 6*176. 
Mentone, 117. 
Mexico, 45—54. 

coffee, 331. 

house-building, 46, 48. 

maguey and its uses, 52. 

people and homes, 49. 

plateau region, 45. 

Popocatepetl, 45, 47. 

pulque, 52. 

weaving, 52. 
Michigan, beet sugar, 330. 

copper-mining, 335, 350. 

corn, 326. 

ore-docks, 338, 339. 

Sault Ste. Marie, 340, 341. 

sheep, 303. 



* See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named. 



370 



INDEX 



Milk, see Foods. 
Mining, coal, 348, 349. 

copper, 72, 335, 350. 

gold, 350. 

iron, 335-337. 

silver, 72. 
Minnesota, iron mining, 335-337. 

loading ore, 340. 

lumber yard, 354. 

saw-mill, 354. 
Missions, Christian, in Africa, 
227, 233. 

Korea, 287. 
Mohammedan worship, 245, 246. 
Monaco, 117, 118. 
Monte Carlo, 117, 118. 
Morianes, see Glaciers. 
Moscow, 198, 202. 
Mosques, 4*214, 245, 246. 
Mountains, Alps, 115, 161-171. 

Andes, 55-62. 

Canadian Rocky, 41. 

Coast Range, Cal., 25IFR*329. 

Himalaya, 242. 

Liao Hsi, 257, 266. 

in Norway, 145. 

Pyrenees, 114. 

Rocky, 40. 

Selkirk, 41. 
Mountain peaks: — 

Breithorn, 167. 

Chimborazo, 60. 

Cotopaxi, 61. 

Dent du Midi, 170. 

El Misti, 59. 

Fujiyama, 270, 358. 

Holy Cross, 40. 

Hood, 359. 

Kinchinjanga, 242. 

Mokuaweoweo, 360. 

Oberaarhorn, 166. 

Ortler, 161. 

Pele"e, 359, 361. 

Pichincha, 61. 

Pike's Peak, 25R*40. 

Popocatapetl, 45, 47. 

Shasta, 354. 

Stephen, 41. 

Vesuvius, 357, 362. 

Victoria, 41. 
Mukden, 265. 

Nagasaki, 278. 

Naples and Vesuvius, 175, 357. 

spinners in street, 295. 
Negros in central Africa, 225-227, 
231 232 

the United States, 293, 355. 
Netherlands, see Holland. 
New Brunswick, logs in river, 354. 
New York City, 1-8. 

Broadway, 4, 7. 

Brooklyn Bridge, 3, 7. 

City Hall, 4. 

Curb market, 5. 

elevated railways, 7. 

ferry-boats, 7. 

Fifth Avenue, 7. 

industries, 1. 



New York City, shopping distnct, 7. 

"sky-sclapers," 3, 4. 

stock exchange, 5. 

street life. 6. 

Subtreasury, 5. 

tenement houses, 6. 

transportation, 1. 

Wall St., 5. 

water-fronts, 1, 3. 
Niagara, American Falls, 12, 15. 

canal past falls, 17. 

gorge, 13. 

Horseshoe Falls, 12, 14, 15, 16. 

Luna Falls, 12, 15. 

relation to commerce, 17. 

relation to manufactures, 18. 

water-power, use of, 19. 

whirlpool rapids, 14. 
Nijni Novgorod, 196, 199. { 
Nile river, 210, 217-219, 222. 
North Carolina, negro home in, 
355. 

pine forests, 355. 

tar and turpentine, 355. 
Norway, Bergen, 144. 

Christiania, 147. 

fiords, 144, 145. 

Hammerfest, 147. 

haying, 141. 

Kjendals glacier, 169. 

life in Norway, 145-147. 

Odde, 145. 

surface features, 141-144. 

Occupations, see Food, Clothing, 

Shelter and Transportation. 
Ocean, Arctic, 3R*147, 21IFR* 
328 

Atlantic, 120. 

Indian (distant), 6R*252. 

Pacific, 8*259, 268, 9R*287. 
Odde, Norway, 145. 
Ohio, ore docks at Cleveland, 
342, 343. 

Conneaut, 342. 
Omnibuses in London, 4*91, 4a*92. 
Orange growing, 329. 

picking, 329. 
Oregon, Columbia river, 327. 

salmon-fishing, 327. 
Ortler, the, 161. 
Osaka, Japan, 277. 
Oysters, 199. 

Pacific, see Oceans. 

Pagodas, 3R*265. 

Paintings, famous, 129, 190, 192. 

Palace (doges), Venice, 187. 

municipal — Florence, 9R*191. 

(papal) at Rome, 172, 189. 

(royal) Berlin, 156. 

(royal) Madrid, 108. 

(royal) Windsor, 92. 
Palestine, primitive customs, 312, 

316. 
Palm trees, 13d*77, 2*238, 289. 
Panama, bananas and canoes, 332. 
Paris, Arch of Triumph, 129. 

avenues and streets, 123-128. 



* See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named. 



INDEX 



371 



Paris, Bois de Boulogne, 126. 

Chamber of Deputies, 128. 

Ddme des Invalides, 128. 

Eiffel Tower, 126. 

Hotel de Ville, 128. 

Island of the City, 127. 

Madeleine, the, 128. 

Montmartre Heights, 124. 

Napoleon's tomb, 128. 

Notre Dame. 127, 128. 

Seine, river, 127. 

Vendome Column, 128. 

works of art in, 129. 
Peat, 80, 83. 
Pekin, 254, 257, 265. 
Peninsulas, 4*144. 
Pennsylvania, coal mining, 348, 
349. 

coke ovens, 348, 349. 

glass making, 352. 

iron and steel, 345-347. 
People, famous. 

President Roosevelt, 23R*39. 

King Edward VII., 93. 

Queen Alexandra, 93. . 

Earl Roberts, 93. 

General Sir Herbert Kitchener, 
93. 

Earf Selbourne, 6R*93. 

Pope Pius X., 190. 

Hon. Joseph Chamberlain, 93. 

Sir Robert Bond (Newfound- 
land), 93. 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier (Canada), 93. 

Hon. R. J. Seddon (New Zea- 
land), 93. 

Sir Edmund Barton (Austalia), 
93. 

Sir Albert Henry Hime (Natal) 
93. 

Sir John Forrest (Australia), 93, 
and others in same group. 
People of many lands: — 

Central Africa, 225-227, 231, 232. 

Ceylon, 238, 240. 

China, 254, 255, 262. 

Ecuador, 60 4d*61, 68, 69, 70, 75. 

Egypt, 3*209, 216, 220, 2R, 3R* 
222. 

England and Colonies, 4d*92. 
1R, 6R*93. 

France, lc*113, 119, 122, 18R* 
130. 

Germany, 17R*158, 26R, 28K, 
29R*160. 

Greece, 1R, 7R, 8R*204. 

Holland, 133. 134, 139. 

India, 239, 240, 245, 246, 247, 
249 

Ireland, 80, 83. 86. 

Italy, 5R, 6R*190. 

Japan, 272, 274-276, 9R, 10R* 
278. 

Korea, 282-285. 

Mexico, 49-52. 

New York City, 5, 6, 4R*7. 

Norway, 141. 

Peru. 3*58. 

Philippine Islands, 3R, 4R*289. 



People of many lands: 

Russia, 194, 195, 196, 5*199, 
3R*201. 

Spain, 101, 5*102, 106, 109. 

Sweden, 142. 

Tyrol (Austria), 161, 163. 

See also people at work in indus- 
tries relating to Clothing, Food 

and Shelter. 
Peru, Arequipa, 65. 

Cerro de Pasco, 66, 67, 72. 

Cuzco, 64, 65, 67, 72. 

Lima, 65, 66. 

mountains, 56-58. 

railways, 57-58. 
Philippine Islands, 289. 
Physiography, see Relief and its 

effects, also Erosion, Geysers, 

Jungles, Lowlands, Mountains, 

Oceans, Plains, Plateaus, Prairies, 

Rivers, Valleys, Volcanoes. 
Plains, in France la, lb, lc*113. 

Germany, 26R, 28R*160. 

Greece, 3R*204. 

Russia. 1*194. 4*198. 5, 6*199. 
see also Prairies, 7*200. 
Planting in Africa, 226. 

Sweden, 142. 

Peru, 56. 
Plateaus, in the Andes, 4*60, 4a, 
4b*61. 

Arizona, 34, 5IFR, 6IFR*325. 

Mexico, 45-47. 
Plowing in Ceylon, 237. 

Illinois, 316. 

Palestine, 316. 

Philippine Islands, 321. 

Spain, 104. 
Pope Pius X., 190. 
Popocatepetl, 45, 47. 
Porcelain, 160, 279. 
Portofino, Italy, 176. 
Porto Rico, 330, 331, 332. 
Portugal, 103, 108. 
Pottery-making, 160, 226, 279. 
Power-plant at Niagara, 19. 
Prairies. American 6IFc*316, 

11IFR*326. 
President Roosevelt, 23R*39. 
Primitive modes of life, 51, 70, 220, 

224-226, 282-285. 
Puebla, Mexico, 45. 
Pulque, 52. 

Pyramids of Gizeh, 207, 211. 
Pyrenees, the, 114. 

Quarry, granite, 356. 
Quebec, Canada, 43. 
Quito, Ecuador, 65, 66, 67. 

Races of men: — 

Black in central Africa, 231, 

232. 
in the United States, 293, 355. 
in Jamaica, 43IFR*332. 
Red (Indian), in Mexico, 50. 

in Peru, 3*58, 4d*61. 
Yellow, in China, 254, 255, 262. 

in Japan, 272,274, 275, 279, 280. 



* See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named. 



372 



INDEX 



Races of men :— 

Yellow, in Korea, 282-285. 
Railways, elevated, 7, 157. 

mountain, 40, 57, 58, 350. 

train that crosses equator, 10b* 
235 
Rainfall, see Relief and its effects. 
Rapids in the Congo, 235. 

Katsura, 269. 

Niagara, 14. 

Ste. Marie, 341. 
Relief and its effects, Alpine re- 
gions, 161-171. 

Andean regions, 55-62. 

Arizona, 21, 24, 34. 

China, 256-259. 

Congo Free State, 230-236. 

Egypt, 207-219. 

France, 111-116. 

Greece, 204-205. 

Holland, 132-135. 

India, 242-244. 

Italy, 172-177, 184. 

Japan, 268-271. 

Mexico, 45-48. 

Niagara, 10, 11, 17. 

Rhine Valley, 150-155. 

Rocky Mountains, 41. 

Russia, 198-201. 

Scandinavia, 141-147. 

Scotland, 94, 95. 

Spain, 98-104. 

Yellowstone Park, 32. 
Religious observances: — 

Hindu, 245. 

Jainist, 246. 

Moslem, 246, 247. 
Reservations, National, see Yel- 
lowstone and Yosemite. 
Rhine delta country, 132-135. 

sources, 170. 

valley, 150-155. 
Rice, 237, 238, 271, 3^0-324. 
River, Chukiang, 264. 

Colorado, 24-26. 

Columbia, 327. 

Dnieper, 6*199. 

Elbe, 158. 

Forth, 94, 96. 

Ganges, 244, 245. 

Guadalquiver, 108. 

Hudson, 1. 

Thelum, 243. 

Meuse, 140. 

Neckar, 151. 

Nile, 210, 217-219, 222. 

Oder, 158. 

Oka, 199. 

Peiho, 263. 

Rhine, 150-155. 

St. Lawrence, 43. 

Seine, 127. 

Tiber, 178. 

Yellowstone, 31. 

see also Rapids and Waterfalls. 
Roads, along mountain-sides, 3a, 
3b*59. 2R*170. 

in tropical jungles, 5*230, 5a, 
5c*231. 



Roads:— see also Streets. 
Rocky Mountains, 40, 41. 
Rome, 178-182, 189-191. 

Castle of St. Angelo, 178, 182. 

Colosseum, 181. 

Pantheon, 180. 

Pope, the, 190. 

St. Peter's. 178. 

Sistine Chapel, 189. 

Tiber, 7*178, 12*182. 

Vatican, the, 178, 189. 
Roosevelt, President, 23R*39. 
Rope-making, 2R*52. 
Rotterdam, 136. 
Rubber, 227. 
Russia, 194-203. 

Kief, 199. 

Moscow, 198, 202. 

Nijni Novgorod, 196, 199. 

Odessa, 314. 

peasant life, 194-197. 

St. Petersburg, 201. 

salt, 200. 

shipping wheat, 314. 

surface features, 198. 

Salt, 120, 200. 

Sandwich Islands, see Hawaii. 

Sault Ste. Marie, canals and 

rapids, 340-341. 
Savoy, (Alps), 164. 
Scandinavian peninsula, 141-149- 

cities, 144, 147. 

fiords, 145. 

surface, 141. 

village life, 145-147. 
Schoolhouse in Japan, 280. 
Scotland, 94-97. 

Edinburgh, 95. 

Forth Bridge, 96. 

Highlands, 94. 

Lowlands, 94. 

Oban, 94. 

Stirling, 94. 

Trossachs, 94. 
Sculptures, decorative, 17R, 20R 

*130, 23R*159. 

famous, 129, 192, 2R*204. 
Seine river, 127. 
Sequoiae (big trees), 39, 353. 
Sham-hai-kwan, 257, 266. 
Sheep raising, 21, 72, 86, 101, 

204, 302. 
Shelter, industries pertaining to, 

building houses (Congo), 225. 

building houses (Korea), 284. 

elephants piling timber, 249.. 

glass making, 352. 

lumbering, 353. 

mining and shipping iron, 334-344. 

saw-mills, 284, 353, 354. 

steel making, 344-348. 

tar and turpentine, 355. 

weaving matting, 52. 

see also Fuel, Furniture, Homes, 
and Textiles. 
Shipbuilding, 160. 
Shipping, see Harbors and Trans- 
portation. 



* See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named. 



INDEX 



373 



Shops, see Markets and Shops. 
Silk, selling in Japan, 277. 
Silver mining in Peru, 72. 
Sistine Chapel, 189. 
Soldiers, Africa, 228. 

British and Colonial, 93. 

Earl Roberts and Lord Kitchener, 
93. 

Japanese, 277. 

South American, 61. 

United States, 39. 
South America, 55-79. 
South Carolina cotton mills, 298. 
Spain, Almeria, 99. 

"backward customs," 104-107. 

Barcelona, 108. 

Burgos cathedral, 101. 

cork industry, 109. 

Granada, 100. 

harvesting, 106. 

irrigation, 102, 105. 

Madrid, 108. 

Montserrat, 102. 

physiography and climate, 98- 
104. 

plowing, 104. 

royal palace, 108. 

Seville, 108. 

sheep raising, 101. 
Spinning with distaff, 295. 

with wheel, 296. 
Sports, see Amusements. 
Steel, see Iron and Steel. 
Stimulants, see Pulque, Tobacco 

and Vineyards. 
Streets, avenues and squares, famous 

Broadway, 4, 7. 

Bois de Boulogne, 126. 

Champs Elysees, 123. 

Chandni Chouk, 252. 

Fifth Avenue, 6. 

Forum of Pompeii, 362. 

Forum of Rome, 180. 

Grand Canal, Venice, 186. 

Nevsky Prospect, 201. 

Oxford St., 92. 

Piazza della Signoria, 191. 

Princes St., 95. 

Puerta del Sol, 108. 

Regent St., 92. 

St. Mark's Square, 14R*193. 

St. Peter's Square 1*172, 8*17 

Unter den Linden, 157. °. 

Suez Canal, 159. 
Sugar, cultivating beets, 160. 

extracting from beets, 330. 

grinding cane, 72, 330. 

harvesting cane, 57, 72, 330. 

planting cane, 56. 

transporting cane, 330. 
Surface, see Relief and its effects. 
Sweden, farming in, 142. 

Gothenburg, 147. 

Rista Falls, 143. 

Stockholm, 147. 

surface features, 142, 143. 
Switzerland, glaciers, 167. 

lakes, 170. 

mountains, 167, 170. 



Tar and turpentine, 355. 
Tea. 270, 318-320. 
Tehuantepec Indians, 50. 
Texas, cotton industry, 305-306. 

rice industry, 323-324. 
Textiles, origin of, see Cotton, Flax, 

Maguey and Wool. 
Textiles, processes of manufacture: 

carding, 298. 

spinning, 295, 296. 

warping, 299. 

weaving, 52, 72, 239, 297, 299-300. 
"Thread and needle" plant, 52. 
Tobacco, 333. 

Tokyo, 273, 274, 276-278, 280. 
Towers, famous, Eiffel, in Paris, 
126. 

Florence, 8R, 9R*191. 

Moscow, 5R*202. 

Venice, 15*187. 
Trade, see Harbors, Markets, and 

Transportation. 
Transportation (land) by animals. 

camels, 221, 8R*252, 1R*265. 

dogs, 134. 

donkeys, 58, 3a*59, 6b, 7*66 
2R, 5R*86, 9IMR*350. 

elephants, 249. 

horses, 29R*40, 4a*61, 5IFR*325. 

llamas, 58, 59. 

mules 1R*34. 

oxen, 106. 5IF*314, 6IFA*316, 
30IFR*330, 16IL,R*355. 
Transportation (land) by human 

carriers. 

Austrian Tyrol, 1*161. 

Central Africa, 231, 232. 

Ceylon, 2*238. 

China, 319. 

Egypt, 217, 1R*220, 2R, 3R* 
222 

France, 5*119. 18R*130. 

Holland, 9R*139. 

Japan, 270, 8R*227, 9R, 10R. 
11R*278, 8IF*318. 

Jamaica, 43IFR*332. 

Mexico 4*49. 

Philippine Islands, 2R*289. 

Russia, 2*195. 

Sweden, 2*142. 

Texas, 7ITR*306. 

see also Bridges, Railways and 

Roads. 
Transportation, water. 

by canoes and dug-outs 13b*77, 
14a*78 2b*226, 332. 

ferry-boats, 7, 1R*43. 

gondolas, 186. 187. 

ocean steamers, 89, 13R, 14R*278 

racing shells, 4d*92. 

rafts, 14a*78. 269. 

sail-boats, 121. 133. 2R. 4R*222. 

ship-building, 160. 

warships, 4R*43, 118. 

"whaleback" vessels, 18, 7IMc 
*341. 

See also Canals, Harbors and 

Docks, Rope-making, Tar and 

Turpentine. 



* See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named. 



374 



INDEX 



Trees, big, in California, 39, 353. 

palm, 13d*77, 2*238, 289. 
Tropical landscapes, Africa, 220, 
230, 5a, 5c*231. 

Ceylon, 3*238. 

Jamaica, 43IFR*332. 
Turpentine, 355. 
Tyrol, 1*161. 

United States: — 

/. Atlantic Coast district: — 

Broadway, 4, 7. 

Brooklyn Bridge,. 3, 7. 

cabins and tenement houses of 
poor, 6, 355. 

city residence region for the rich, 6. 

cotton growing and picking, 293. 

cotton manufacturing, 298. 

elevated and surface railways, 7. 

ferry boats, 7. 

financial center of U. S., 5. 

fisheries, 328. 

Government: President Roose- 
velt, 23R*39. 
U. S. Subtreasury, 5. 

industry and trade, 1-6. 

modern bridge buildings, 3, 7. 

modern office buildings, 3, 4, 5. 

negro element, the, 1*293, 355. 

pine barrens, N. C, 355. 

quarrying granite, 356. 

resin, tar and turpentine, 355. 

river-front of a large city, 1-3. 

shipping, 1-3. 

stocks and speculation, 5. 

II. Great Lakes district: — 
Cattle in pasture, 325. 

stockyards, 325. 
Chicago, grain — elevators, 18. 

meat packing, 325, 326. 

stockyards, 325. 

"whalebacks" 18. 
copper mines, 335. 
corn harvest, 326. 
grain elevators, 18. 
hogs in pasture, 326. 
iron mining in drifts, 335. 

in open pits, 335-337. 

steam shovels, 336, 337. 

stripping surface, 337. 
iron ore, docks, Lake Michigan, 
339 

docks, Lake Superior, 338, 340. 

passing the "Soo," 340-341. 

unloading, Lake Erie, 342- 
344. 
new machinery, 342-344. 
old machinery, 343. 
Niagara Falls, 9-16. 

gorge, 13-16. 

whirlpool rapids, 15. 
Sault Ste. Marie, down-lockage, 
341. 

up-lockage, 341. 

the rapids, 341. 
shipping, in the canals, 341. 
stockyards, 325. 



27. Great Lakes district: — 
sugar making (beets), 330. 
timber and saw-mills, 354. 
"whaleback" freighters, 18, 341. 

III. Central River Basin and Gulf 
district: — 

coal mining, 349. 
coke ovens, 349. 
cornfields, 11IFR*326. 
cotton, baling, 306. 

carting, 306. 

ginning, 306. 

shipping, 306. 
glass making, 352. 
lowlands near the Gulf, 3IFR* 

324 
plowing 6IFB*316. 
prairie farm, 11IFR*326. 
rice, cutting, 323. 

hauling, 324. 

threshing, 324. 
steel manufacture, 345-348. 

blast furnace, 346. 

rolling mill, 347. 
sugar transportation, 34IFR* 

330. 
timber at saw-mill, 31IMR*354. 

seasoning, 33IMR*354. 

IV. Rocky Mountain district: — 
army post, Yellowstone, 30. 
buffalo, wild, 29. 

canyon, Yellowstone, 31-33. 
craters of geysers. 11R, 13R*35. 
Continental Divide, 29. 
deer, wild, 29. 
erosion, effects of, 31-33. 
eruption (of geysers), 35. 
fording a river, 40. 
Garden of the Gods, 40. 
geysers, 35. 

hunters on horseback, 40. 
Mountain of the Holy Cross, 40 
mountain railways, 40. 
National Park, 29-33. 
Pikes's Peak, 25R*40. 
Ramshorn mountains, 40. 
sage-brush, 7*29. 
Shoshone Lake, 29. 
Terraces of geyserite, 35. 
volcanic action (geysers), 35. 
Yellowstone canyon, 31-33. 

falls, 31, 33. 

river, 31-33. 

V. Southwestern Plateau district: — 
beef supply, source of, 325. 
Canyon Diablo, 34. 

"Grand,-" 23-27. 
cattle- range, 325. 
Colorado river, 23-27. 
copper mining, 350. 
Desert, "Painted," 34. 
erosion, effects of, 23-27. 
leather supply, source of, 325. 
Mexican shepherd, 21. 
mountains, 34. 
plateau of the Colorado, 2X. 



* See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named. 



INDEX 



375 



V. Southwestern Plateau district: — 
pack-animals, 351. 
prospecting for gold, 351. 
railway construction, 34, 350. 
"round-up" of cattle, 325. 
sheep- raising, 21. 

volcano, extinct, 34. 
wool growing, 21. 

VI. West (Pacific) Coast district:— 
Big trees, 39, 353. 

cliffs, 14R*36. 

erosion, effects of, 36-38. 

farming, oranges, 329. 

wheat, 316. 
fishing, Columbia River, 327. 

Puget Sound, 327. 
gorges, 36-38. 

grain- harvester at work, 316. 
irrigation, process, 329. 

results, 25IFR*329. 
lumbering, 353-355. 
Mount Hood, 359. 
Mount Shasta, 354. 
Mountains, San Bernardino, 329. 
orange-growing, 329. 
prairie, rolling, 6IFc*316. 
Redlands, landscape at, 329. 
Riverside grove at, 329. 
salmon in nets and traps, 327, 

328. 
San Bernardino valley, 329. 
saw-mills, 353, 354. 
sequoiae (big trees), 39, 353. 
transporting logs, 354. 
water falls, 36. 
wheat harvesting, 316. 
Yosemite valley, 36. 

Vale of Cashmere, 243. 

Valleys (typical), Chamonix, 164. 

. Forth, 94. 

Jhelum, 243. 

Neckar, 151. 

Rhine, 150-154. 

Roldal, 141. 

San Bernardino, 329. 

Yosemite, 36. 
Vatican, the, 172, 178, 189. 
Vegetation, arctic, 3R*147. 

temperate, 7R, 8R*94, 103, 8* 
123 

tropical. 230, 231, 3*238, 250. 

up on heights, 4c*61. 
Venice, 183-189, 193. 

Bridge of Sighs, 188. 

Campanile, 187. 

canals, 187. 

Doges' palace, 187. 

gondolas, 187, 188. 

St. Mark's, 193. 

"streets" of Venice, 187. 
Vesuvius, 175, 357, 362. 
Vineyards, French, 115. 

German, 27R*160. 
Volcanoes: — 

Aso San, 71, 360. 

Chimborazo, 60. 

Cotopaxi, 61. 



Volcanoes:— 

Fujiyama, 270, 358. 

Hood, 359. 

Mokuaweoweo, 360. 

Pelee, 359, 361, 

Pichincha, 61. 

Popocatapetl, 45, 47. 

Red, 34. 

Vesuvius, 357, 362. 
Volcanic cones, 35, 357. 

phenomena, 35, 359. 

remains, 34, 361. 

Wall, Great, of China, 257, 267. 
Walled cities. 257, 1R, 3R, 4R, 
266. 

see also Fortifications. 
Washington (State):— 

Columbia River, 327. 

grain harvester, 316. 

prairie landscape, 316. 

salmon fisheries, 327, 328. 
Waterfalls, in Congo river, 235. 

at Niagara, 9-17. 

in Sweden, 143. 

in Yellowstone Park, 31, 32. 

in Yosemite Valley, 36. 

see also Rapids. 
Weaving on hand looms, 52, 239, 
297. 

power looms, 72, 299-300. 

primitive (fish-nets), 226. 
West Indies: — 

Cuba, 330, 333. 

Jamaica, 332, 333. 

Martinique, 359-360, 361. 

Porto Rico, 330, 331, 332. 
Western (U. S.) scenery, 21-42. 

Big tree groves, 39. 

Garden of the Gods, 40. 

geysers, 35. 

Grand Canyon, 23-27. 

Mt. Hood, 359. 

Mt. of the Holy Cross, 40. 

Mt. Shasta, 354. 

Pike's Peak, 25R*40. 

prairie in Washington, 316. 

Ramshorn Mts., 40. 

Redlands, Cal., 329. 

Riverside orange-grove, 329. 

Royal Gorge, Colo., 40. 

San Bernardino Valley, 329. 

Sault Ste. Marie, iapids, 341. 

Yellowstone Park, 29-36, 

Yosemite Valley, 36-39. 
Whaleback steamships, 18, 341. 
Whaling, 328. 329. 
Wheat, 312-317. 
Windmills, 134, 135, 139, 26R* 

160. 
Windsor Castle, 92. 
Wine, see Vineyards. 
Wisconsin, logging in, 353. 
Wool, see Clothing industries and 

Sheep. 
Work, different kinds of, see Indus- 
tries, also Clothing, Food, Shel- 
ter and Transportation. 
Wyoming, mountain scenery, 40. 



* See stereograph whose title is so marked on the page named. 



376 



INDEX 



Yellowstone Park, 27-33, 

buffalo, 29. 

canyon, 31, 32. 

Continental Divide, 29. 

deer. 29. 

falls in river. 31, 32. 

geysers, 35. 
Yosemite Valley, 36-38. 

El Capitan, 36. 



35. Yosemite Valley:— 

falls, 36. 

mountain vistas, 36. 
Yokohama, Japan, 278, 280. 

Zones, see Arctic ocean and lands. 
Tropical landscapes and Vegeta- 
tion. 
Zoology, see Animals. 



THE 


UNDERWOOD 


STEREOGRAPHS 


IN 


THE 


PUBLIC 


SCHOOLS 



"I cannot conceive of anything better for educational pur- 
poses." — Professor Archibald Sayce, Queens College, Ox- 
ford. 

"There is nothing more appropriate for giving object les- 
sons in geography than stereoscopic photographs. One look 
through the stereoscope teaches more than hours spent in 
hearing or reading descriptions." — A. Kirchman, Ph.D., 
Toronto University. 

"When one looks at an ordinary picture of a distant place 
with the naked eye, one feels himself to be still in America — 
or wherever he may be at the time. Through the stereoscope, 
with the outer world shut off by the hood, one feels himself 
to be looking right at the scene itself." — Walter L. Hervey, 
Ph.D., Board of Examiners, New York City. 

"It is as absurd to study history or geography without ade- 
quate first-hand experience of seeing places, things and 
people with the lifelike realism of the stereoscope, as to study 
natural sciences without a laboratory. Sense experience 
should be the foundation stone of mind-building." — Dr. Win- 
ship, Editor of the Journal of Education. 

"I am personally of the opinion that the stereograph sup- 
plies the very data which completes the knowledge of the 
teacher and renders his research work less arduous, by giv- 
ing him the facts he requires and equipping him with the re- 
sourcefulness of a travelled man." — G. F. Daniell, E.Sc, 
Science Master in Mercers' School, London. 

"The stereoscopic photograph induces through its plasticity 
a more intense 'looking into' the object. In other illustra- 
tions one always feels the lack of telling details, but in the 
stereograph one really does find them. The flat picture is 
looked at in a more superficial way, and leaves an almost use- 
less impression. The pupil never gets the intense impression 



of reality which the stereograph gives." — Dr. Karl Egli, 
Zurich, Switzerland. 

"We have recently introduced the Underwood & Under- 
wood stereographs into the Cleveland Normal School to help' 
Us in our geography work. The many expressions of inter- 
est and pleasure from the lips of our students are good evi- 
dence that these stereographs are winging them far beyond 
the sense horizon that shuts them in." — Jennie D. Pullen, In- 
structor in Geography. 

"The manageability of the instruments, the facility with 
which the children manipulate them, their manifest pleasure 
in using them, and the zest with which they report their dis- 
coveries and follow up their inferences, convince me that 
the stereoscope provides us with an instrument for visual 
illustration superior in handiness and general effectiveness to 
any such instrument hitherto in use. I think it suitable for 
students of any age. We have procured a set of stereoscopes 
and stereographs for use in this Training College." — Rev. 
G. H. Fathers, Vice-Principal and Master of Method, Culham 
College. 

"I have used your stereographs as an aid to the teaching 
of Geography and to illustrate object lessons for several 
years, and find that they impress the minds of the scholars 
in a way that no other means short of actual visits to the 
various scenes could do. A point that cannot be too much 
insisted upon is that the stereographs are not merely pic- 
tures, but have an effect upon the mind similar to that ex- 
perienced by beholding the actual scene itself." — F. M. Glad- 
well, Principal, Sandridge, Board School, St. Albans. 

"It is evident that whole classes may use them in the 
ordinary work of demonstration, or the pupil may study them 
in his individual field work — for much of the field work may 
be done indoors as well as out-of-doors. In the study of 
foreign countries and their people there are great opportuni- 
ties. And, indeed, in the use of the stereoscope and the 
stereoscopic view there is an entirely new field to be opened. 
It is a field that hitherto has been closed to both teacher and 
pupil, and to both there are possibilities of study and research 
that are little dreamed of. In my own studies they have been 
a revelation. Indeed, I do not know of any device more 
helpful to the teacher of geography than a stereoscope with 
a good assortment of stereographs." — Jacques W. Redway, 
F. R. G. S. 



"Lately I have been testing the capabilities of the Underwood 
& Underwood system of Visual Instruction by means of care- 
fully selected stereographs. I am fully satisfied as to the excel- 
lence of the system as an aid to teaching 'World Knowledge.' 
I took several friends, old and young, through the Yosemite 
Valley, and though we never left our own country, we thor- 
oughly enjoyed our realistic visit to this marvelous valley, 
and the mental impressions of the scenes have proved to be 
lasting. We followed our guide from point to point and 
listened while he told us about the natural wonders we were 
so entrancingly gazing at — the exquisite reflections of Mirror 
Lake — the fairy-like beauty of Bridal Veil Falls — the 
grandeur of the view from Cloud Rest — the eerie, uncanny 
feeling of standing over nothing on Glacier Point — and the 
awe-inspiring mass of El Capitan. To us, shut in our 
stereoscopes from all notice of our immediate surroundings, 
these were so real that often have we stretched out our hands 
to touch objects which were actually thousands of miles 
away." — J. Morton, Headmaster, Oxford Gardens School, 
North Kensington, W. London. 

"Of late years several devices have come into general use 
in our schools, aimed at arousing, as far as possible, states 
of consciousness essentially similar to the states of con- 
sciousness produced when one is in the actual presence of 
certain remote scenes and objects. If teachers who make 
use of pictorial illustrations, whether through the medium of 
the lantern, wall pictures, drawings, models or similar helps, 
could conveniently and speedily take their pupils into the 
actual presence of the realities instead, it would set an end 
at once to the extensive use of these common aids. The 
essential sensations upon which an experience of seeing any 
scene is founded cannot be aroused in children by any flat 
picture. . . . Natural seeing, which necessitates the 
convergence and divergence of the eyes according to the 
nearness or distance of the objects regarded, is reproduced 
by one mechanical device only — the stereograph. The sensa- 
tions, physical and mental, produced by examining a stereo- 
graph through the stereoscope, are exactly the same in kind 
as we would receive were we looking at the real scene. We 
may therefore provide for our pupils in their class-room an 
experience similar, for instance, to that of actually visiting 
the volcanic phenomena in Yellowstone Park, or of standing 
in the midst of a tea plantation in Ceylon, etc. This is not 
the result merely of looking through a stereoscope at a cer- 



tain stereoscopic view, but it is the result of using a system 
in which the stereographs, a series of special maps, and a 
particular method of presentation are all important factors." — 
Education, London, England. 

"In late years there has been perfected something that, in 
my judgment, goes ahead of pictures, and quenches the mind's 
thirst for the concrete almost as completely as the very object 
before the bodily sight. I refer to the stereograph. The art 
of illustration, as we all know, has been marvelously improved 
in recent years. Our commonest school-books today have 
process illustrations that for accuracy, delicacy and beauty are 
greatly superior to the best of sixty years since. Our ten-cent 
magazines are familiar miracles of picture-books. Certainly 
the human mind has been vastly enriched by this cheapening 
and perfecting of processes of illustration. But even the best 
pictures we still feel to be but pictures; they do not create 
the illusions of reality, solidity, depth. 'The best in this kind 
are but shadows.' But with the stereoscope the wonder of 
photography is brought to its culmination. . . . The 
problem of enriching the minds of children with a manifold 
contact with the actual is solved by the stereoscope. . 
May we not conclude, then, that the general introduction of 
the stereoscope into the schools would be of incalculable 
value in almost all lines of school work? Notably it would 
put new life and interest into the geography, the nature study, 
the language work, while enriching the children's minds with 
varied perceptions in many realms, which would remain part 
of their equipment and a source of their enjoyment for as long 
as they live. This newer, vivider appeal to the desire of the 
concrete is in line with the tendencies and aims of modern 
education, it accords with the teachings of psychology, and it 
has the sanction of the universal experience that the world 
is interesting and eternally worth knowing about. When 
Mahomet found that the mountain would not come to him, 
he went to it. But modern science has worked more miracles 
than could Mahomet's prayers. As our children cannot them- 
selves go out into the world in body, to see and possess it, 
let us nevertheless take them to the world, not in words only, 
or even in pictures only, but in the most vivid and satisfying 
way available, in stereoscopic photographs." — G. J. Smith, 
Ph.D., Board of School Examiners, New York City. 



UNDERWOOD 

STEREOSCOPIC TOURS 



The Underwood Stereoscopic Tours are put up in neat Volume Cases, or 
Underwood Extension Cabinets, and the stereographed places are arranged in 
the order in which a tourist might visit the actual scenes. 

Note that these are all Original Stereographs, not copies. 

To accompany these Tours we recommend our "Twentieth Century" 
Aluminum Mahogany Stereoscope. A higher-priced stereoscope can be 
furnished if desired. 

AUSTRIA TOUR — Giving 84 positions, and case. 

BELGIUM TOUR — Giving 24 positions, explanatory notes on backs of 
stereographs, and case. 

BRITISH-BOER WAR — Giving 36 positions, and case. 

BURMA TOUR — Giving 50 positions, and case. 

CANADA TOUR — Giving 72 positions, explanatory notes on backs of stereo- 
graphs, and case. 

CEYXON TOUR —Giving 30 positions, and case. 

CHINA TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Prof. James 
Ricalton, 358 pages, cloth, and eight Underwood patent maps and case. 

Boxer Uprising Tour — Cheefoo, Taku, Tientsin — (a part of the China 
Tour) — Giving 26 positions, with guide book, three patent maps and case. 

Hongkong and Canton Tour (a part of the China Tour) — Giving 15 posi- 
tions, with guide book, three patent maps and case. 

Pekin Tour (a part of the China Tour) — Giving 32 positions, with guide 
book, two patent maps and case. 

UBA AND PORTO RICO TOUR — Giving 100 positions, and case. 

DENMARK TOUR — Giving 36 positions, and case. 

ECUADOR TOUR — Giving 42 positions, and case. 

EGYPT TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Prof. James 
H. Breasted, Ph. D., 360 pages, cloth, and twenty Underwood patent 
maps and case. 

ELEPHANT SET — Giving 12 positions, explanatory notes on backs of 
stereographs, and case. 

ENGLAND TOUR — Giving 100 positions, and case. 

FRANCE TOUR —Giving 100 positions, and case. 

GERMANY TOUR — Giving 100 positions, explanatory notes on backs of 
stereographs and case. 

GRAND CANYON OF ARIZONA TOUR — Giving 18 positions, with guide 
book, two Underwood patent maps and case. 

GREECE TOUR —Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Prof. Rufus 
B. Richardson, Ph.D., fourteen Underwood patent maps and case. 
Athens Tour (a part of the Greece Tour) — Giving 27 positions, with guide 
book by Prof. Richardson, four Underwood patent maps and case. 



INDIA TOUR —Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Prof. James 
Ricalton, ten Underwood patent maps and case. 

Bombay to Cashmere Tour (a part of the India Tour) — Giving 24 posi- 
tions, with guide book by Prof. Ricalton, five Underwood patent maps 
and case. 

IRELAND TOUR —Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Charles 
Johnston, seven Underwood patent maps and case. 
Queenstown, Cork and Dublin Tour (a part of the Ireland Tour) — Giving 
36 positions, with guide book by Charles Johnston, three Underwood 
patent maps and case. 

ITALY TOUR —Giving 100 positions, with guide book by D. J. Ellison, D.D., 
and Prof. James C. Egbert, Jr., Ph.D., 602 pages, cloth, and ten Under- 
wood patent maos and case. 
Rome Tour (a part of Italy Tour) — With guide book by Dr. Ellison and 
Prof. Egbert, 310 pages, cloth, and five Underwood patent maps and 
case. 

JAMAICA TOUR — Giving 24 positions, and case. 

JAPAN TOUR — Giving 100 positions, explanatory notes on backs of 
stereographs, and case. 

JAVA TOUR — Giving 36 positions, and case. 

KOREA TOUR — Giving 48 positions, and case. 

MANCHURLA. TOUR —Giving 18 positions, and case. 

MEXICO TOUR — Giving 100 positions, and case. 

NIAGARA FALLS TOUR — Giving 18 positions, with guide book, and two 
Underwood patent maps and case. 

NORWAY TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book edited by Prof. 
Julius E. Olson, Ph. D., eight Underwood patent maps and case. 
The Hardanger Fjord Tour (a part of the Norway Tour) — Giving 21 posi- 
tions, with guide book edited by Prof. Olson, two Underwood patent 
maps and case. 

PALESTINE TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Rev. Jesse 
L. Hurlbut, D.D., 220 pages, cloth, and seven Underwood patent maps 
and case. 
Jerusalem Tour (a part of the Palestine Tour) — Giving 27 positions, with 
guide book, by Dr. Hurlbut, one patent map and case. 

PALESTINE TOUR No 2 — Giving 100 positions, all different from those in 
the above tours, and case. 

PANAMA TOUR — Giving 36 positions, and case. 

PARIS EXPOSITION TOUR — Giving 36 positions, and case. 

PERU TOUR — Giving 60 positions, and case. 

PHILIPPINE TOUR —Giving 100 positions, and case. 

PILGRIMAGE TO SEE THE HOLY FATHER —Giving 36 positions, with 
guide book, by Rev. Father John Talbot Smith, LL.D., two Underwood 
patent maps and case. 

PORTUGAL TOUR — Giving 60 positions, and case. 

PRESIDENT McKINLEY TOUR —Giving 60 positions, with guide book, 183 
pages, cloth and case. 

PRESIDENT McKINLEY TOUR No 5 A —Giving 60 positions, with guide 
book, 183 pages, cloth, and genuine leather case, velvet lined, inscrip- 
tion in silver. 

PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT TOUR — Giving 36 positions, and case. 

REAL CHILDREN IN MANY LANDS TOUR —Giving 18 positions, with 
guide book by M. S. Emery, 222 pages, cloth, and case. 

RUBY MINING SET — Giving 9 positions, with explanatory notes on backs 
of stereographs, and case. 



RUSSIA TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by M. S. Emery, 
216 pages, cloth, and ten Underwood patent maps and case. 

Moscow Tour (a part of the Russia Tour) — Giving 27 positions, with 
guide book, three patent maps and case. 

St. Petersburg Tour (a part of the Russia Tour) — Giving 39 positions, 
with guide-book, five patent maps and case. 

RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR — Giving 100 positions, and case. 

SAN FRANCISCO DISASTER TOUR — Giving 36 positions, and case. 

SCOTLAND TOUR — Giving 84 positions, explanatory notes on backs of 
stereographs and case. 

SICILY TOUR — Giving 54 positions, and case. 

SPAIN TOUR — Giving 100 positions, and case. 

"SPANISH BULL FIGHT" — Giving 12 positions, and case. 

ST. PIERRE AND MONT PELEE TOUR — Giving 18 positions, with guide 
book by the celebrated traveler, George Kennan, and three Underwood 
patent maps and case. 

SWEDEN TOUR —Giving 100 positions, with guide book edited by Prof. 
Jules Mauritzson, eight Underwood patent maps and case. 
Stockholm Tour (a part of the Sweden Tour ) — Giving 36 positions, guide 
book edited by Prof. Mauritzson, three Underwood patent maps and 
case. 

SWITZERLAND TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by M. S. 

Emery, 274 pages, cloth, and eleven Underwood patent maps and case. 
Bernese Alps Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Giving 27 positions. 

with guide book, three patent maps and case. 
Engadine Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Giving 8 positions, 

with guide book, four patent maps and case. 
Lake Lucerne Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Giving 11 positions, 

with guide book, three patent maps and case. 
Mont Blanc Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Giving 23 positions, 

with guide book, two patent maps and case. 
Zermatt Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Giving 15 positions, with 

guide book, two patent maps and case. 

" TRAVEL LESSONS ON THE LIFE OF JESUS" —Giving 36 positions, 
with complete hand-book, 230 pages, cloth, by Rev. Wm. Byron Fur- 
bush, Ph.D., and four Underwood patent maps and case. 

" TRAVEL LESSONS ON THE OLD TESTAMENT "—Giving 51 positions, 
with complete hand-book, 211 pages, cloth, by Rev. Wm. Byron 
Forbush, Ph.D., and four Underwood patent maps and case. 

Other interesting and instructive tours can be made up from the large 
collection of original stereographs always in stock, or from new stereographs 
which are constantly being added. New guide books, written by authorities 
on each country, are being added each year. 

We advise customers to purchase complete tours on the countries that they 
may be interested in. One hundred stereographed places of one country will 
generally give much better satisfaction than the same number scattered 
over several countries. Many of our patrons are placing all of our educational 
tours in their homes alongside of the standard works on those countries. 
Sdiools and public libraries are turning more and more to the stereoscope to 
put their students and readers in touch with the actual places of which they 
are studying. The United States Government considered them so valuable 
that all educational tours published to d?te, with the new Underwood 
Extension Cabinet, were purchased for the United States Military Academy 
at West Point. 

When two or more of the "100" tours are wanted, we recommend the 
"Underwood Extension Cabinet". It can be "built up" from time to time, 
as desired, holding from 200 to 2000 stereographed places, or more. 

UNDERWOOD C& UNDERWOOD 

3-5 West 19th Street, Cor. Fifth Avenue, New York 

LONDON, ENGLAND. OTTAWA, KANSAS 

TORONTO. CANADA. SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA 



TRAVELING IN THE HOLY LAND 
THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

A TOUR CONDUCTED BY 

JESSE LYMAN HURLBUT, D.D. 

Author of Manual of Biblical Geography, Manual Lessons for the Sunday 
School, Etc.; Editor of Illustrated Notes on the Inter- 
national Sunday School Lessons. 

This volume (196 pp., 7 patent maps) accompanies in guide- 
book fashion a sightseer viewing Palestine from one hundred 
specially desirable standpoints. The author, who knows Pales- 
tine from end to end, says of this work: 

"Have you dreamed of visiting Palestine? Have you longed to know 
what it would mean to stand by the wall of Jerusalem? in Nazareth? by the 
Jordan? You may know now by the right use of the stereographs, specially 
devised maps and this book, what it is to stand in those places." 

The places seen are visited in the order of a practicable 
journey through the country. The comments made by Dr. 
Hurlbut on what is seen from each standpoint include both in- 
teresting explanations of picturesque details of the land and the 
life, as observed at the moment, and reminders of the many 
significant associations of the place with the sacred stories of 
the Old and New Testaments. 

JOHN HENRY BARROWS, D.D., L.L.D., late President of 
Oberlin College, says: 

"I have examined with great interest the stereoscopic photographs of the 
Holy Land made by Messrs. Underwood & Underwood. They are altogether 
the finest which I have ever seen, and with Dr. Hurl but V interesting book (con- 
taining patent maps) they enable one to make a journey almost literally through 
Palestine. I have rarely been so pleased as by these stereoscopic photographs. 
They will make a trip to the sacred places accessible to those who do not cross 
the ocean." 

Other comments are like the following: 

"Every student of history or geography, every traveler who desires to 
have a faithful portraiture of what he is to see, or an exact reproduction of what 
he has seen, the teachers of children and those who, in the quiet of their homes, 
wish to pass a pleasant evening in other climes, should certainly possess these 
series of original stereoscopic photographs. For Biblical research and Bible 
students the 'Journeys in the Holy Land' is of the greatest service." 

"The views from the Holy Land, together with the manual, form an inval- 
uable aid for the Sunday School teacher and student of the Bible. With George 
Adam Smith's Historical Geography of the Holy Land, and Underwood & Under- 
wood's stereoscope and views one would feel as though he were studying the 
facts on the ground where the events were enacted." 



RJW * \*» 



